Educational Technology An overview:
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit Objectives
1.2 Meaning and Definition of Educational Technology
1.3 Nature of Educational Technology
1.4 Types of Educational Technology
1.4.1 Teaching Technology
1.4.2 Behavioural Technology
1.4.3 Instructional Technology
1.5 Components of Educational Technology: Hardware and Software
1.5.1 Hardware Approach
1.5.2 Software Approach
1.6 Systems Approach in Educational Technology
1.6.1 Systems Approach in Education
1.6.2 Advantages of Systems Approach
1.6.3 Role of the Teacher in Systems Approach
1.7 Multimedia Approach in Educational Technology
1.7.1 Audio-Visual Aids
1.7.2 Blackboard
1.7.3 Charts
1.7.4 Epidiascope
1.7.5 Film Strip
1.7.6 Map Study
1.7.7 Microfilm
1.7.8 Projector
1.7.9 Reprographic Equipment
1.7.10 Three-Dimensional Aids
1.7.11 Radio’s School Broadcast Programmes
1.7.12 Educational Television (ETV) or Instructional Television (ITV)
1.8 Role and Significance of Educational Technology
1.9 Summary
1.10 Key Terms
1.11 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’
1.12 Questions and Exercises
1.13 Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
History has revealed that technology strengthens the hands of a teacher and makes his/her teaching more effective. Education has been benefitted by technology in
various ways and at various levels. From both, sociological and the economic points of view, technology has made an impact on education training. Education could keep
pace and avoid costs and uncertainties of invention, by merely following technological
leads. Today, a number of institutions in developed and developing countries are
offering courses through various communication technologies such as interactive
TV, computer conferencing, the Internet and other modern media. Some distance
education/open learning institutions in developing countries now are also offering
courses electronically. As a result, a large number of learners are pursuing their
studies through technology.
In such conditions it becomes essential for all those in the field of education to
be familiar with the nuances of the use of technology in education. Besides it is well
known that some teachers teach better by utilizing new methods and techniques,
whereas others prefer old methods. Over the years, many techniques, methods and
equipment have been developed by teachers and researchers to make the process
of learning effective. This process of developing and using scientific methods, media
and techniques for enhancing the effectiveness of teaching and learning, is essential
for educational technology. In this unit, you will be able to define educational technology,
assess the scope and nature of educational technology and recognize the various
forms of educational technology.
1.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
Discuss the concept of educational technology
Explain the nature of educational technology
List the different types of educational technology
Analyse the components of educational technology
Explain the contribution of the systems approach in the field of education
Evaluate the multimedia approach in educational technology
Discuss the role of the teacher in school television programmes
Evaluate the role and significance of educational technology
1.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
The 21st century has been named as the ‘age of knowledge’ and there is no way in
which one can deny the role of technology in different aspects of our lives. Like
other fields, education too has been deeply impacted by technological revolution.
This interface of education and technology isn popularly known as educational
technology. Some associate the term ‘educational technology’ solely with technical
equipment and media of education, such as overhead projectors, television, and
computers. There are others who believe that educational technology involves a
scientific and systematic analysis of the teaching—learning process with an objective
to maximize its effectiveness.
Before going further, it is essential to understand the word ‘technology’. This
word is taken from the Greek word technología, which means an art and is related
to skill and dexterity. Generally, the term ‘technology’ denotes the systematic
application of the knowledge of sciences to practical tasks in industry. Technology
can refer to material objects like machinery or hardware and also comprise more
themes, including systems, methods of organization and techniques.
In context of educational technology, D. Randy Garrison (1989) opines:
‘Technology will be viewed here as having both, a process (software) and a product
(hardware) component, where process is the creative application of knowledge of
purposeful activities. A subset of hardware is media, where media are the devices
used to distribute information’. Thus, educational technology is a wider concept of
the word ‘technology’. Further, it will be wrong to confuse the term ‘teaching’ with
the process of teaching or instructing, or educating, or provision of knowledge or
engineering. This creation of education does not compromise and has very positive
future prospects. For all those who are constantly engaged in the pursuit of knowledge
otherwise, it will remain destructive to the welfare of free society.
A large number of different groups and individuals have defined ‘educational
technology’ in many ways, over a period of time. A few of the notable definitions are
as follows:
According to Finn (1962), ‘educational technology is a process, an attitude, a
way of thinking about certain classes of problems.’
Lumsden (1964) arrived at two meanings of educational technology, viz.,
Educational Technology-I (ET-1) and Educational Technology-II (ET-II).
ET-I refers to the application of engineering principles of technology to
instrumentation, useful in the process of teaching. ET-II refers to the application
of behavioural science to improve instruction.
The National Council for Educational Technology (1967) has defined
educational technology as ‘the development, application and evaluation of
systems, techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning’.
According to G. O. M. Leith, ‘Educational technology is the application of
scientific knowledge and learning and the conditions of learning, to improve
the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and training. In the absence of
scientifically established principles, educational technology implements the
techniques of empirical testing to improve learning situation’.
According to S. K. Mitra, ‘educational technology can be conceived as a
science of techniques and methods by which educational goals could be
realized’.
According to S. S. Kulkarni, ‘educational technology may be defined as the
application of the laws as well as recent discoveries of science and technology
to the process of education’.
According to D. Unwin, ‘educational technology is concerned with the
application of modern skills and techniques to the requirements of education
and training. This includes the facilitation of learning by manipulation of media
and methods and the control of environment in so far as this reflects on
learning’.
According to Shiksha Paribhasha Kosh (1978), educational technology has
the following meanings:
(i) It is the use of those scientific theories and principles during the
formulation and application of training systems, which emphasize result
and experience based objectives, and are based upon educational
principles to guide the education system.
(ii) Educational technology is the use of those audio-visual devices in training,
which are based on modern technology, e.g., use of computer stimulators,
television, radio, and video-tape.
(iii) It is self-training based on planned instructional material, through teaching
machines.
According to the Association for Educational Communication and Technology,
AECT (1977), ‘educational technology is a complex and integrated process,
involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and organization, for analysing
problems and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to
those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning’.
According to Mitchell (1978), there are five fundamental definitions of
educational technology:
(i) Educational technology I (educational psycho technology): This
meaning depends upon psycho technology to enhance a learner’s
capability by manipulating sensory input directly or indirectly. The various
problems of educational psycho technology are: assessing the capability
of students on the basis of diagnoses; clarifying the objectives of
education; selecting or prescribing the instructions of communication,
resources or actions and assessment. It includes all methods of
management of the learning processes of others, in order to achieve
certain prescribed behaviours. Controlled learning is important since
student is the focal point. This meaning corresponds to the professional
role of learning consultant.
(ii) Educational technology II (educational information and
communications technology): This meaning stresses on the model,
manufacture and assessment of training resources and communications
for local or widespread distribution. Focus is on generating, selecting,
processing and storage of information for the purpose of education and
to retrieve information. This is to make knowledge more accessible.
This meaning corresponds to the role of education materials provider.
(iii) Educational technology III (educational management
technology): This definition stresses on organization of the resources
of education. These resources include associated activities like planning,
programming, budgeting, management, decision-making, operations
research and system analysis. Organizational technology provides useful
decision modes, information systems and organizational theory for man
machine systems. This concept of educational technology is supported
by both practical and theoretical investigations. So, this meaning
corresponds to management of learning resources.
(iv) Educational technology IV (educational system technology): This
concept pertains to functions like setting up, outlining, constructing and
evaluating educational systems. The education system developer is
concerned with administration, operations, extramural and alternative
educational systems. It may envision and execute a computer-aided
system of training or design suitable courses.
(v) Educational technology V (educational planning technology): This
meaning focuses on planning at the supra-institutional or national level.
Non-educators are the prime occupants of this field. Their belief in
alternative opportunities of education is overshadowed by economic
factors related to the role played by the educational planner.
This fivefold meaning of educational technology represents the primary and
central concept of educational technology. Each of these types can stand alone and
yet be integral to others.
Mitchell (1978) arrived at the following consolidated definition of educational
technology: ‘educational technology is an area of study and practice (within education)
that is concerned with all aspects of the organization of educational systems and
procedures, whereby resources are allocated to achieve specified and potentially
replicable educational outcomes’.
According to the Scottish Council for Educational Technology (1979),
‘educational technology is a systematic approach to designing and evaluating learning
and teaching methods and methodologies, and to the application and exploitation of
media and the current knowledge of communication techniques in education, both
formal and informal’.
In the words of National Curriculum Framework, NCF (2006), ‘educational
technology could be defined in simple terms as the efficient organization of any
learning system, adapting or adopting methods, processes and products, to serve
identified educational goals’. This would involve:
Systematic identification of the goals of education, taking into account
nationwide needs (like higher scalability), system capabilities and learners’
needs and potential
Recognition of the diversity of learners’ needs and the contexts in which
learning will take place and the range of provisions needed for them
Recognition of not only the immediate needs of children but also of their
future needs in relation to the society for which we are preparing them
Designing, providing for and enabling appropriate teaching-learning systems
that could realize the identified goals
Developing a range of support systems and training, enabling systemic
conditions/materials and making them accessible schools
Training teachers and students to use them
Research existing and new techniques, strategies and technologies for
solving problems of education, enabling judicious and appropriate application
of technology
Appreciation of the role of educational technology as an agent of change
in the classroom, influencing the teacher and the teaching-learning process
and its role in systemic issues like reach, equity and quality
In the executive summary of a paper on education technology, NCF (2006)
opines: ‘Educational technology is the efficient organization of any learning system,
adapting or adopting methods, processes and products to serve identified educational
goals. This involves systematic identification of the goals of education, recognition
of diversity of learners’ needs, the context in which learning will take place and the
range of provisions needed for each of these’.
AECT has given its latest definition of educational technology as ‘…the study
and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating,
using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources’ (Januszewski
and Molenda, 2008). Mangal & Mangal (2010) opine: ‘Educational technology should
stand for a wise application of available human and non-human resources for providing
appropriate solutions to educational problems and to improve the process and products
of education’. Aziz Hap (2010) defines ‘educational technology as‘the considered
implementation of appropriate tools, techniques, or processes that facilitate the
application of senses, memory and cognition to enhance teaching practices and
improve learning outcomes’.
The wide differences in opinion, regarding the definition of educational
technology among theorists and practitioners is very well revealed in the above
definitions. These definitions initially embraced the whole range of activities of
educational technology, from the methods of psychology of learning and teaching to
audio-visual communication and mass technology.
However, one can list down certain characteristics of educational technology
from the above definitions:
It is concerned with the systematic application of science and technology
in the field of education.
It adds efficiency to the process of teaching-learning within formal and
informal situations.
It includes organization of appropriate learning conditions for realizing the
goals of education.
It stresses on developing methods and techniques for effective learning
and evaluation.
It encompasses the complete teaching and learning process and is not
limited to specific aspects.
It involves input, output and process aspects of education.
It includes organization of learning conditions for realizing the goals of
education.
It enables and facilitates learning by control of learning situations, media
and methods.
It is not limited to the usage of audio-visual aids, but also extends to the
application of psychological principles and instructional theories for
improving the teaching-learning process
It provides procedural and practical guidance and explanation to the glitches
of education.
1.3 NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
The roots of educational technology lead us to the time when early tools had come
to exist, e.g., paintings on cave walls. However, generally, its history begins with a
film on education (1900s), or Sidney Pressey’s mechanical teaching machines of the
1920s. Since then it has been evolving and taken many forms: PowerPoint
presentations with voice-over; hypertext, i.e., V. Bush’s memex in 1940s; Skinners
work led to ‘programmed instruction’ in 1950s; Computer Aided Instruction or
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) in the 1970s, through the 1990s and in the
present scenario it has taken the form of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC),
e-tutoring and blended learning among others. However, educational technology
should not be confused with teaching or instruction or learning or engineering, but it
should be taken as sum total of all such aspects which go a long way in shaping the
personality of the learner in a meaningful context (Singh, 2006).
Further, with changes in technology, the conception and nature of educational
technology has also been adapting itself. Although the term has been in use for long
now, however, it is still considered complex in nature. Educational technology is very
versatile and comprises a cyclic procedure, a store of equipment (physical and
conceptual) and a multiple-node liaison, mutually between learners and also between
them and the facilitators of instructions (Hap, 2010). To understand the nature of
educational technology, one needs to ascertain the objectives of educational technology
and distinguish between ‘technology in education’ and ‘technology of education’.
One is also required to comprehend the components of educational technology.
Objectives of Educational Technology
As defined by Leith, educational technology is the application of scientific knowledge
about learning and the conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of teaching and training. Educational technology has the following prime
objectives:
To modernize learning methods and techniques according to the changing
world
To bring desirable changes in the behaviour of teachers and pupils by improving
teaching, learning and evaluation conditions
To make classroom teaching clear, effective, objective and scientific
Hilliard Jason has given the following points on the objectives of educational technology:
It transmits information.
It serves as a role model.
It contributes to the provision of feedback.
It assists in the practice of specific skills.
Alvin Toffler talks of ‘responsible technology’, so the objectives of educational
technology can be as follows:
To establish objectives and put together goals, in terms of behaviour
To examine the learners’ personality
To structure the information in an order that is psychologically inclined
To arbitrate between content and resources of presentation
To assess the accomplishment of learners, in terms of the objectives of
education
To supply feedback, among other components, for modifying the learner
General objectives of educational technology
The general objectives of educational technology are:
To identify educational needs of the community
To determine the aims and objectives of education
To prepare an appropriate curriculum
To determine suitable strategies
To identify human and non-human resources
To identify problems which stand in the way of development of the learner’s
personality
To suggest remedies to solve problems that emerge
To manage the entire educational system
To improve the process and product of education
Specific objectives of educational technology
The specific (from the viewpoint of specific classroom teaching) objectives of educational technology are:
To identify the educational needs of the students
To determine the classroom objectives in behavioural terms
To evaluate and sort the content of instructions in logical or psychological
succession
To plan teaching methods and strategies of the presentation of content
To make use of aid material, software and hardware, mass media and
communication techniques
To identify human and non-human resources
To evaluate classroom teaching, in terms of performance of students
To provide continuous feedback to students and the teacher for improving the
teaching–learning process
‘Technology in Education’ and ‘Technology of Education’
Education today has grown in leaps and bounds. Technology has made learning
easier for both teachers and students. The developments in technology are not limited
to gadgets and appliances used by people daily, but they have reached schools and
classrooms. In this connection, there are two phrases which are popularly and often
interchangeably used: ‘Technology in Education’ and ‘Technology of Education’.
Though they sound similar, they are different.
‘Technology in education’ refers to the use of technological hardware in
education. Here, more importance is given to the media used for carrying a message.
It is mainly concerned with electrical and electronic gadgets, which are used to
facilitate the teaching–learning process. This is a constantly evolving field that
depends upon technological advancements. It involves the increasingly complex
range of audio-visual equipment, hardware and sophisticated electronic devices like
projectors, films, television, tape recorder, teaching machines, teletext and Computer
Aided Instruction for individual and group learning. The use of technology in education
has many advantages, just as technology has enriched every aspect of life. Technology
in education is not limited to make learning and imparting of education easier in
every possible way. It is also a field of study in itself for those who are involved with
developing technological tools for educational purposes.
It is always advantageous to use technology in education because it helps
both teachers and students to gain knowledge in a quicker and better way. Technology
in education will be useful if it is properly planned and organized on psychological
and pedagogical principles. Technology in education serves the following purposes:
Supplies the needed appliances, equipment and mass media for accomplishment
of different purposes and functions of education
Facilitates training of the teachers to handle and make the finest use of
equipment
Develops a positive attitude among teachers and learners towards these
appliances
Signifies the relevance and use of the appliances in the context of individual
and group learning, to achieve the goals of formal and informal learning
‘Technology of education’ can be referred to a purposeful utilization, in
combination or separately, of objects, techniques, devices, events and relationships
to increase the effectiveness of educational purpose. Technology of education deals
with applying the resources of technological knowledge in an organized way, through
which every individual has to pass, for acquiring and using knowledge. It governs
the involvement of educationists in the design and evaluation of systems of learning,
involving an understanding of the psychology of learning, communication and
information theory. It signifies a technological approach to the system, issues and
problems of education. This approach characterizes the methodology appropriate to
learners’ needs, learning objectives, the process of learning and teaching, as well as
availability of resources. ‘Technology of education’ includes ‘Technology in education’,
as shown in Figure 1.1.
Technology in
Education
Technology of Education
Fig. 1.1 ‘Technology in Education’ as a sub-set of ‘Technology of Education’
‘Technology of education’ also includes decisions about different aspects of
education like determination of educational objectives to be achieved, the size of
learning groups, learning sequence, teaching methods and selection of media. It also
comprises the appropriate use of media, knowledge, ideas, human and non-human
resources in systematic planning, designing, production, management and evaluation
of the educational process. In other words, it includes the entire process of setting
goals, continuous renewal of curriculum, trial and use of new methods and materials,
evaluation of the system as a whole and resetting of goals in view of changing
circumstances.
Saettler (1978) distinguishes between ‘technology of education’ and
‘technology in education’. According to him, the former is a behavioural science
conception, whereas the latter is a machine (device) conception of educational
technology. Radio, television, OHP (overhead projector), computer, tape recorder,
constitute ‘technology in education’. On the other hand, programmes on radio and
television, computer programmes and OHP transparencies that are based on scientific
knowledge of education, constitute ‘technology of education’.
Components of Educational Technology
S. P. Ruhela (2002) in his book, Educational Technology, has listed three main
components of educational technology as a concept; and each component has a
defined role to play in the process of education. The three components are:
(i) Methods: Making use of a few devices like programmed learning, team
teaching, micro-teaching and personalized system of instruction as methods
in teaching–learning situations.
(ii) Materials: Comprises instructional materials like programmed textbooks,
manuals, guides, texts and other written/print materials.
(iii) Media: Implies employing audio or visual or both audio-visual media, such as
radio, tape recorders, charts, maps, posters, films and educational television
as teaching aids to supplement effective teaching and promote better learning.
Besides, manpower is an essential component of educational technology, which
intertwines the web of methods, materials and media. In view of this list of components
of educational technology, the concept of educational technology needs to be
understood in the broader perspective of education. It is a comprehensive technology
associated with all aspects of the educative process such as choice of methods,
teaching strategies, selection of adequate/relevant learning materials, use of
appropriate aids and guiding in operation/handling of various equipment to ensure
better performance on the part of the learner. AECT (1977) reports, ‘educational
technology is a broad concept encompassing teacher and learner, as well as the
process and product of learning’. Educational technology functions as a mission
with the prime concern of reaching a large section of the society through all possible
means. Educational technology involves greater psychological and pedagogical
preparedness, a scientific attitude and a coordinated approach to the educational
process as whole. It reflects a professional interest and zeal for making experiments
and innovations for the development and success of education.
The highlights of the nature of educational technology are listed as:
It is a science of techniques and methods which can help in realizing
goals
It is an application of the body of knowledge
It takes help from the laws and findings of psychology, sociology,
engineering, and some other basic social and physical sciences
Its purpose is to improve teaching–learning situations
It is a functional analysis of the teaching–learning process and it locates
various components that operate from the stage of input to that of output.
It is dynamic and progressive in nature
It treats school as a system of well-laid inputs, processes and output
components
It does not subsume the role of a teacher
It is not an end in itself but a means to accomplish some laid down goals
It does not provide a solution to all types of problems, but it helps in the
development of teaching and training processes of education
It cannot be viewed in terms of its parts or processes; all branches,
innovations, approaches and strategies should be integrated as a whole,
according to the needs and requirements of the system represented by
educational technology
It is a technology that is continuously developing
In essence, one can say that educational technology is applied to the teaching–
learning process with the main purpose of making the system efficient and effective.
In other words, appropriate use of educational technology can make the teaching–
learning process efficient and effective. However, practitioners need to be careful
about the use of media, methods and materials. This has been explained in NCF
(2006): ‘The key phrases in ET (educational technology) are appropriate technology,
that is, appropriate to the task in hand for meeting specific educational objectives
and the organization of all available resources into a workable system, which is
checked again and again to ensure that it is appropriate and changing it where it is
not working. In applying the discipline of ET to the field of education, it is imperative
that the media choice must relate to instructional design as well as to what is available
and eminently usable’.
Further, educational technology should not be considered just as a subject but
should be regarded as something that adds qualitative value, is relevant and appropriate.
Its other attributes include transformation of education by making it dynamic and
responsive and arousing curiosity and a desire to learn.
1.4 TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Technology, media and materials that are useful in the instructional process, comprise
simple varieties that help teachers to develop and present their lessons more effectively
in traditional classrooms. They also comprise sophisticated machines and mechanisms
that completely change the structure and scenario of classroom teaching. A number
of technological media and materials can be useful in both teaching and in the
management of administrative data that is necessary in modern mass education.
Educational technology can thus assume many forms. Often, its only aim is to make
the current practices more efficient and effective. However, at times educational
technology brings about pedagogical alterations. Though it can be regarded as a
design science, it also tackles the basic problems related to learning, teaching and
social organization. Hence, the complete use of all features of modern social science
and life science methodology are captured by it. Educational technology performs
the twin functions of a tool and a catalyst. The three commonly accepted types of
educational technologies are: (i) teaching technology, (ii) behavioural technology
and (iii) instructional technology. These are discussed below.
1.4.1 Teaching Technology
Teaching is a skill. The use of technology in teaching makes this skill simpler, specific,
functional and unprejudiced. This form of educational technology rests itself on the
knowledge of philosophy, psychology and science, so as to achieve the desired learning
objectives. There are two important features of teaching: (i) content and (ii) classroom
communication. Substance and interaction are the two factors that form teaching
technology. In addition, contemporary teaching focuses on the student and not on
the teacher. Thus, it needs a psychological analysis of the learner. Hence, teaching
is both scientific and psychological. The system of learning assists the teacher in
making right decisions. In addition, it also builds up a sense of professionalism that
makes one accountable. It incorporates essential alterations in the idea of teaching;
teacher’s training, formulating the policies of teaching, and management objectives
of a teacher. Teaching technology is that form of educational technology, which is
concerned with making the process of teaching more systematic.
Assumptions of teaching technology
Teaching technology is based on the following assumptions:
Nature of teaching process is scientific
Teaching activities can modified as required
Pre-determined learning objectives can be achieved through teaching activities.
A mutual relationship between teaching and learning can be established.
Proper conditions can be created for effective learning.
Characteristics of teaching technology
E. G. Vedanayagam (1988) has solicited a list of characteristics and fundamental
principles of teaching technology. These are as follows:
Teaching is a scientific process and its major components are content,
communication and feedback.
There is a close relationship between teaching and learning.
It is possible to modify, improve and develop teaching–learning activities.
The terminal behaviour of the learner, in terms of learning structures, can be
established by appropriate teaching environment.
Teaching skills can be developed and strengthened by means of feedback
devices, with or without sophisticated techniques.
Pre-determined learning objectives can be achieved by designing suitable
teaching activities.
The use of achievement motivation technique enhances the output of a teacher
and a learner.
Technology is a rapidly changing area of the curriculum. For experienced teachers
as well as students and novices, technology has evolved the need for a whole new
range of knowledge and skills in teaching. Davies (1971), in his book, Management
of Learning, has presented the contents of teaching technology in four steps—
(i) planning of teaching, (ii) organization of teaching, (iii) leading by teaching and
(iv) control of teaching. These are discussed in detail, as follows:
Planning of teaching: Within this phase, the teacher examines the subject
matter, decides upon and describes the learning objectives, and puts these
objectives clearly in writing. The following three activities are performed by
him, as part of this phase: (a) task analysis, and (b) identification of the aim of
teaching, (c) noting down learning objectives. As quoted by I.K. Davies, ‘in
teaching, planning is the work a teacher does to establish learning objectives’.
Organization of teaching: In this stage, an effectual atmosphere is created
by the teacher. This is done through the selection of teaching techniques,
approaches, procedures and vital benefits.
Leading by teaching: In this stage, the teacher is a source of motivation for
the students. They show interest in the teaching and learning objectives in
every phase of this stage. I. K. Davies wrote, ‘leading is the work a teacher
does to motivate, encourage and inspire students, so that they readily achieve
the objectives of learning’.
Control of teaching: In this stage, there is no change in prearranged and
described purpose of learning. This stage does not comprise the introduction
of any change. However, the prospect is reviewed by the teacher, so that the
predefined goals can be achieved. For accomplishing this impressive task,
support is sought by the teacher through different techniques of validation
and measuring of dimensions. If the teacher comes to the conclusion that the
learning objectives have not been accomplished, then it is his duty to bring
essential modifications in the organization’s behaviour.
1.4.2 Behavioural Technology
Behavioural technology is a vital constituent of educational technology. It emphasizes
that psychosomatic values be used in learning and teaching. The motive is to change
the behaviour of the teachers and pupils to match with the objectives of teaching.
This form of educational technology is dependent on psychology. Behaviour is the
focus of the process of education and learning with their objective to bring persistent
changes. Different learning experiences are shared with learners to bring desirable
changes in their behaviours. Here, behaviour would mean the cognitive, conative
and affective activities of an individual. Behaviour technology, as a form of educational
technology, is utilized to study and bring modification in the behaviour of all learning
organisms. B. F. Skinner popularized the usage of this term while making use of his
‘theory of operant conditioning’. He used the theory to bring desired modifications
in the behaviour of learning organisms. In the area of learning and education,
behavioural technology focuses on the behaviour of teachers. Hence, it is sometimes
also referred to as ‘training psychology’. In schools, the task of behavioural technology
has become almost synonymous with behaviour analysis and behaviour modification,
carried out through the principles of operant conditioning and observation learning.
In other words, behavioural technology focuses attention on the use of principles
that have a psychological orientation in the processes of learning and teaching. This
works to alter the behaviour of the teachers and pupils to match it with the mode of
teaching. Behavioural technology is aimed at boosting the growth and development
of behaviour and learning. It employs the following to transform the behaviour of a
teacher:
Definition of teacher-behaviour
Doctrines of teacher-behaviour
Observation technique of teacher-behaviour
Study and nature of teacher-behaviour
Assessment and standards of teacher-behaviour
Prototypes of teacher-behaviour
Different tools to develop teacher-behaviour such as: programmed instructions,
T-group training, interaction analysis techniques and simulated training of social
skills
Suppositions of behavioural technology
Behavioural technology is based on the following suppositions:
A teacher’s behaviour socially and psychologically.
A teacher’s behaviour can be observed.
A teacher’s behaviour can be measured.
A teacher’s behaviour can be modified.
Everyone is not a born teacher.
Teachers can also be made.
Salient features of behavioural technology
Some of the important characteristics of behavioural technology are:
The basic function of behavioural technology is psychology.
Strength and responses are strongly focused upon in behavioural technology.
The teaching acts are appraised from a purposeful viewpoint in behavioural
technology.
Behavioural technology emphasizes psychomotor goals.
Behavioural technology is in terms of the software approach.
Behavioural technology is widely practised in training institutes of teachers.
The attention of behavioural technology can be based on individual differences
between students and teachers.
Behavioural technology is focused on the elements and direction of behaviour
in a classroom.
Behavioural technology would help practitioners to know the nature of the
existing behaviour, the nature of the target behaviour, and the ways and the means
to meet gaps between existing and target behaviours.
1.4.3 Instructional Technology
The evolution of a technology occurs when scientific learning and communication
are used in teaching. When physical sciences interact with education, we are provided
with traditional support, gear, materials like paper, ink, books, radios, films, televisions
and more refined progressive hardware like, computers, space satellites, and language
laboratories. Stoluraw (1963) stressed on the theory of existence of three most
important factors that are focused on the association of instruction and technology:
(i) the population explosion in the world, (ii) the exponential pace of the spread of
new knowledge, and (iii) scientific and technological changes in our present social
structure. Robert A. Cox defined the technology of instructions as ‘... the application
of scientific process to man’s learning conditions’. E. E. Haden opined, ‘instructional
technology is that branch of educational theory and practice, concerned primarily
with design and use of messages which control the learning process’. The definition
given by Unwin (1969) described instructional technology as: ‘The application of
modern skills and techniques to requirements of education and training (instruction).
This includes the facilitation of learning by manipulation of media and methods and
the control of environment’.
Another popular and accepted definition has been given by S. M. McMurin
(1970): ‘Instructional technology is a systematic way of designing, carrying out
and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching, in terms of specific objectives
based on research, human learning and communication. It employs a combination of
human and non-human resources to bring about the more effective instruction’.
AECT has defined instructional technology as, ‘the theory and practice of design,
development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources
for learning’.
In the present scenario, instructional technology is broadly necessitated to
establish a progress in teaching, in learning and in the process of evaluation. This
form of educational technology is meant for helping the instructor and the learner in
the desired instructional task for the realization of stipulated instructional objectives,
in a particular teaching–learning situation (Mangal, 2010). In other words, focus is
on developing the instruction process.
Assumptions of instructional technology
The fundamental assumptions of instructional technology are as follows:
A student is able to learn in accordance with his requirement and capability.
A student can learn even if the teacher is not present.
One can augment a particular instruction by its continuous use.
Instructional objectives can be achieved with the help of learning objectives.
The area of discussion can be segregated into different sectors or parts, and
every part can be taught in an independent way by use of this technology.
Unique features of instructional technology
Following are the characteristics of instructional technology:
Instructional technology helps a lot in the achievement of reasonable goals.
Instructional technology can make teachers more efficient.
When supported by instructional technology, the students can learn in
accordance with their requirement and speed of grasping.
Instructional technology has control over individual disparities.
Instructional technology also uses the theory of conditioned response.
A more detailed examination of subject matter is carried out with the help of
instructional technology, which motivates optimism, pertaining to the remarkable
manner in which the contents are presented.
Instructional technology suggests many tools, techniques and knowledge which
are used in designing and delivering results. Together they provide useful means
towards accomplishing educational objectives. It is important to know and be
responsive to:
The destination of delivery of instructions
The tools and techniques available to deliver instruction
The right time to use these tools
Design and delivery of successful learning experiences
Proper distribution of content and methods
The best place to deliver instruction
Ensured meeting of expectations
Revision techniques, in case instructions are not met
The field of instructional technology will only grow if technology improves.
The use of technology will help the delivery of education in an efficient manner, by
overcoming the limitations and problems faced by the education sector. This form of
educational technology is gaining popularity because instructional technologists claim
to achieve effective learning by investing less time and cost, than through other means.
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