Components of educational technology| Hardware and software|System Approach in educational technology

 COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY: HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Professor Henry Ellington (1993) opined that the key function of educational technology is to bring about improvements in the general competence and efficacy

of the teaching–learning process. He further said that these improvements can be

introduced in the following ways:

 By enhancing the quality and capacity of learning

 By reduction of the turnaround time for learners to achieve the assigned

objectives

 By making teachers more efficient

 By cost-cutting without compromising on quality

 By making learners capable of taking their own decisions

 By providing education in more flexible ways

Considering educational technology as multifaceted in nature, Lumsdaine (1964)

has listed its three distinct approaches:

(i) Educational technology I (ET1) or the hardware approach

(ii) Educational technology II (ET2) or the software approach

(iii) Educational technology III (ET3) or the systems approach

1.5.1 Hardware Approach

The hardware approach implies the use of mechanical materials and equipment in

the domain of education. Audio-visual aids like charts, models, filmstrips, slides,

audio cassettes and sophisticated equipment and gadgets like films, projectors, radio,

tape recorder, record player, television, video, teaching machines, computers, etc.,

fall in the category of hardware. The hardware approach is based on the application

of principles of physical sciences and engineering to education and training. In this

system, the teaching process is being mechanized gradually so that maximum pupils

may be educated in minimum time and at low costs. This approach is a by-product

of the scientific and technological developments of the 20th century.

It is to be noted that teaching machines are the only mechanical aids deliberately

designed and invented to fulfil instructional requirements. All other audio-visual aids

were designed and manufactured for improving the communication system, but now

they are being used for instructional purposes.

The mechanization is being introduced for preservation, transmission and

advancement of human knowledge. For instance, a teacher can deal with a large

group of students by his discourse on radio or television. Thus, educational and

training systems are able to deal with an increased number of students and the cost

per student has been reduced by the hardware approach to education. Silverman

(1968) referred to this type of educational technology as ‘relative technology’. This

comprises borrowing and applying technology, machines and devices in the process

of teaching and learning. In this context, educational technology serves a simple

‘service’ function in education.

Ivor Davies calls this approach the ‘Audio-visual Archetype’. This approach

stresses on the employment of machines, devices, equipment and similar instructional

aids. This approach focuses on the teacher and his/her teachings. ‘Technology

is seen as a means of mechanizing or automating the process of teaching with

devices that transmit, amplify, distribute, record and reproduce stimuli

materials and thus increase the teacher’s impact, as well as widen potential audience’

(Davies, 1978). In the beginning, media had developed this approach during the

1930s. It gained prominence during the post World War II period. According to

Davies, this ‘audio-visual archetype’ considers audio-visual hardware to perform

functions like supporting classroom presentations, improving demonstrations by giving

access to reality or simulations of reality. It is not possible for a teacher to come up

with these, within a short span of time. Nevertheless, this approach has faced several

criticisms for the lack of coordination in its application.

Characteristics of hardware are as follows:

 Hardware components are generally electronic and mostly depend on

mechanical systems.

 New techniques and researches are being conducted to evaluate the effect

of hardware.

 The outcome of hardware is direct and immediate because of its concrete

form.

 Hardware components are the media of communication.

The software approach or software technology of education owes its origin to

behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerned with the psychology of

learning. It originated from the engineering efforts of Skinner and other behaviourists.

According to Arthur Melton (1959), software teaching is directly related to psychology

of learning, which comprises behavioural changes resulting from experience. This

view of educational technology is associated with modern principles and theory of

teaching, models of teaching, theory of instruction, and theory of teacher–behaviour

and principles of programmed learning. The components of software technology

are closely associated with the modern principles of programmed learning, such as:

 Task analysis

 Writing objectives in behavioural terms

 Selection of appropriate instructional strategies

 Reinforcement of correct responses

 Constant evaluation

Leith observed that, ‘educational technology is the application of scientific

knowledge about learning and the conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness

and efficiency of teaching and learning’. Silverman (1968) termed software technology

as constructive educational technology due to its constructive nature. Its basic

educational applications are in the analysis of instructional problems, selection or

construction of measuring instruments required to evaluate instructional outcomes and

construction or selection of strategies and tactics to produce desired educational

outcome.

Ivor Davies, names this approach as the ‘Engineering Archetype’, which

applies the principles of behavioural science for the betterment of learning. Despite

the use of hardware, this approach focuses on the learner and the learning. Therefore,

it is called the software approach. ‘Technology is seen as a means of providing the

necessary know-how for designing the new, or renewing the current, worthwhile

learning experiences. Machines and mechanization are merely viewed as instruments

of presentation or transmission’ (Davies, 1978).

It was in early 1969 that software approach initially developed in the area of

programmed learning. It was the outcome of Skinner’s efforts on operant conditioning.

In the beginning, this approach found its application in the design of materials having

sequential content. Soon after, it was widely used as part of curriculum and for

developing courses. Based on the engineering approach, it takes the form of a series

of steps to be followed. These steps comprise a statement of inputs and definition of

objectives, intermediate steps which examine and select instructional strategies and

resources and a terminal step of evaluation and output. This process always includes

feedback. Though conventionally, ET1 went aboard after ET2, it is not to be regarded

as a successful version of ET1. The development of both versions was independent

and they still exist.

Difference between Hardware and software Approach:

Hardware approach Software approach

Hardware approach has its origin in 

physical science and applied engineering.

The origin of software approach is in 

behavioural science and its allied aspects 

concerning the psychology of learning.

It refers to the application of the principles 

of physical sciences or engineering and 

technology, in the development of electro-

mechanical equipment used for 

instructional purposes.

It refers to the application of teaching–

learning principles to direct and deliberate 

shaping of behaviour.

It tries to adopt a product-oriented 

approach.

It tries to adopt a process-oriented 

approach.

It helps in better communication of 

educational purposes. It makes teaching 

effective by mechanizing the teaching–

learning process. It increases the efficiency 

of educational means and reduces the cost 

of education.

It contributes to increase the efficiency of 

teachers as well as learners. However, it 

lags behind in reducing the cost of 

education.

It comprises charts, models, slides, 

filmstrips, audio cassettes, sophisticated 

equipment, gadgets like television, film 

projectors, tape recorders, record players, 

videos, teaching machines and computers.

It comprises modern principles and theory 

of teaching, models of teaching, theory of 

instruction, theory of teacher behaviour and 

principles of programmed learning.

Hardware technology is concerned with 

production and utilization of audio-visual 

aid material, sophisticated instruments and 

mass media for helping teachers and 

learners to achieve better results.

Software technology, tries to exploit the 

psychology of learning for production and 

utilization of software techniques and 

material in terms of learning material, 

teaching–learning strategies, tools of 

evaluation and other devices. 

Hardware is of no use without a suitable 

software that governs its working. It needs 

the services of software technology for its 

functioning.

Software approach makes the hardware 

functional. 

Hardware is prepared by assembling 

different gadgets. The same hardware can 

be used in different fields like industry, 

entertainment, education, corporate sector.

Silverman termed educational technology 

as ‘constructive educational technology’. It 

concentrates on the analysis, selection and 

construction of whatever is necessary to 

meet only educational requirements.

Thus, we may conclude that while the hardware approach originated from

physical sciences and applied engineering, the software approach owes its inception

to behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerned with the psychology of

learning.

Significance of software and hardware

The significance of software and hardware in education are as follows:

 They cater to individual differences of students

 They contribute to the economy of time, energy and resources of teachers

and students

 They bring clarity and vividness to the subject matter

 They help to motivate students

 They help in developing and sustaining the interest of the students

 They make the subject matter interesting, attractive, inspirational and effective

 They provide for active participation of students

These aspects of educational technology are closely intertwined to serve the

cause of education. Hence, a clear demarcation between their constituents is difficult.

For every hardware, there is a corresponding software.

Hardware Software

Overhead projector (OHP)

Slide projector

VCR and monitor

Computer

Blank paper

Overhead transparencies

Slides

Video programmes

Computer programmes

Written matter

It needs to be clarified here that Table 1.2 is not an exhaustive list, but only a

suggestive list of components. The list is endless and continuously growing owing to

the rapid technological developments taking place and even faster adoption of these

newer technologies in teaching–learning situations. What needs to be borne in mind

is that with the development of new technologies, the older ones still occupy an

important place in our educational system.

SYSTEMS APPROACH IN EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY

Systems analysis or approach is a term used to describe the systematic application

of educational technology to an educational or training problem starting with the

input (entry behaviour) and output (terminal behaviour) and determining how best to

progress from the former to the latter. Systems approach is an educational tool

developed to make the educational adventure more flexible, holistic, logical, orderly,

responsible and self-correcting rather than intuitive, undefinable and unordered. What

is unique about the systems approach is that it enables the analysis of not isolated

components, but of the whole and helps one to think in a Gestalt way rather in a

fragmented manner. Aristotle’s statement, ‘the whole is more than the sum of its

parts’ indicates the basic nature of a system.

Definition of systems analysis

 The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English defines a system

as ‘Group of things or parts working together in a regularrelation.’

 A. K. Jalaluddin (1981): ‘A system may be defined as a dynamic, complex,

integrated whole consisting of self-regulating pattern of interrelated and

interdependent elements organised to achieve the pre-determined and specified

objectives.’

 A. Angyal in Foundations for a Science of Personality (1941) defined

systems approach as a holistic organization, where parts of the system are

arranged (organized and interrelated) in a way that distinguishes them from a

simple collection of objects.

 Banghart (1969) defines a system as ‘an integrated assembly of interacting

elements, designed to carry out co-operatively a predetermined function.’!

All systems are made of parts called the sub-systems and are parts of the

higher order system called the supra-system. Asimple system is illustrated in Figure

1.4. In the figure, the system consists of four distinct elements or components, A, B,

C and D, which are related to or dependent upon one another as indicated. Some

inter-relationships may be two-way, while others may be one-way only.

Systems Approach in Education

Education is a dynamic system, its efficiency being determined by the inputs and the

outputs. It is a dynamic organization of mutually related components in a meaningful

pattern and any change in one component may affect the overall performance of

the system, either beneficially or adversely.

Systems approach as applied to education is a rational problem solving method

of analysing the educational process taken as a whole, incorporating all of its parts

and aspects, including the students and teachers, the curriculum content, the

instructional materials, the instructional strategy, the physical environment and the

evaluation of instructional objectives.

Vandana Mehra in an article gives the systems model of the process of

education as given in Figure 1.5. As is evident from the figure, input to an educational

system consists of people, resources and information and the output consists of

people whose performance has improved in some desired way. The output is improved

through increasing the efficiency of educational process for enabling optimum

assimilation of knowledge and skills to occur during the educational process and

hence, maximize the quality of the output.

Components of an instructional system are:

 Stating instructional objectives which helps system designer to decide

what to teach

 Pupils

 Teachers

 Content

 Determining optimum learning conditions to attain instructional objectives

i.e. task analysis, keeping in mind the entry behaviour of learners.

 Deciding upon the instructional strategy and media

 Conducing evaluation (formative and summative and feedback)

Processes involved in systents approach. Following processes are involved in

the systems approach:

 Identifying objectives

 Designing learning experiences

 Evaluating effectiveness in achieving the objectives

 Improving learning experiences in the light of evaluation to better the objectives

Steps in systems approach

I. Identifying objectives: This step includes:

 Determining the broad aims of the course

 Deciding as to what kind of people you are helping your students to become

 Finding out the range of backgrounds, interests, attitudes, aptitudes, skills and

understandings of the students

 Deciding learning experiences that the learners should process

 Deciding about the test you will use as a criterion for evaluation when checking

the extent to which objectives have been achieved

 Deciding about the various techniques you would use, i.e., paper-pencil test,

interviews, observation, and questionnaire

II. Designing learning experiences: This includes:

 Visualising conditions necessary to achieve these objectives

 Identifying learning sequences

 Deciding teaching strategy for reaching the goal

 Selection media of teaching-learning, i.e., lecturing, discussion, field trips, role

playing, textbook, models, programmed learning, and multimedia

 Documenting experiences which include film also

III. Evaluating effectiveness in achieving the objectives: This implies:

 Engaging students in the learning experiences you have designed

 Applying criterion tests to determine how students have changed as a result

 Determining which objectives have been most widely attained,which remain

unattained and by which set of students

Determining whether any unplanned objectives have been attained

IV. Improving learning experiences: This means:

 Determining the strengths and weaknesses of the course

 Identifying remedial weaknesses

 Trying out the revised learning experiences and evaluating again

 Updating the course

 Restarting the course

1.6.2 Advantages of Systems Approach:

The advantage of systems approach are:

 Systems approach provides a framework on which the plans for implementing

changes in education can be built.

 It assists in identifying the suitability or otherwise of the source material to

achieve the specific goal.

 It helps in assessing the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation

to quantities, time and other factors.

 It assists in making use of technological advance to provide integration of

machines, media and people for attaining the defined goals.

 It permits an orderly introduction of components required to be demonstrated

for systems’ success in terms of student learning.

 It avoids rigidity in plan of action as continuous evaluation affords desired

changes to be made.

1.6.3 Role of the Teacher in Systems Approach

As a matter of fact, best teachers have always done something of the sort of systems

approach. It has, therefore, been stated by Michael Eraut and Geoffrey Squires that

systems approach is a ‘response different in degree rather than kind from the other

good method’.

A system-oriented teacher does the following:

 Thoroughly assesses the inputs of his system

 Gathers as much data as possible about his subject-matter

 Thinks of alternative processes for achieving his objectives

 Analyses his objectives into well-defined learning tasks

 Conducts discussions regarding processes and components based on

the best means of furthering the purposes

 Activates the system by putting the plan into action

 Gathers feedback data accordingly and systematically

 Modifies the system’s components and processes based on the feedback

 Assesses the effectiveness of the system by comparing the outputs

with the inputs

 Modifies the system based on all resources of feedback.

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