PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF EDUCATION
-Motivation
-Intelligence
-Personality
-Interests, Values and Attitudes
- Mental Health
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| Psychological correlates of Education |
MOTIVATION
Content outline: Motivation – Need, Drive and Motive –
Motivational cycle – Types of motivation – Factors affecting motivation – Forms of motivation – Maslow's hierarchy of needs – McClelland's Achievement motivation – Motivational functions of teachers – Motivation in the class room.
Three basic factors are related to motivation:
- Need, Drive and Motive.
Need refers to lack of something, absence of something,
non-availability of something which is essential or desirable.
Needs may be physiological if they are related to the body,
psychological if they are related to the mind, sociological if they are related to interpersonal relations. Needs are not needs if they are not perceived as such by the individual.
Any individual will make an attempt to meet his need only when there is a drive in him. Drive refers to the psychological force which impels him to initiate action to meet his need. In absence of a drive the individual will not plunge into action towards meeting his need.
Motive refers to a thought or feeling which generates a
drive in the individual, and this drive, in turn, will impel the individual towards action to meet his need.
Motivation is the process of instilling appropriate motives in the individual, which are likely to facilitate corresponding drives which, in turn, are likely to make the individual initiate action towards meeting his needs.
Here is an illustration: The need of a low achiever is
improvement in his academic achievement. Here is one who does not take any measure towards this goal since the need is not perceived by him and hence there is no drive. The school counsellor has a series of sittings with him. He convinces him of his capacity to score a higher grade and outlines the positive consequences of a better academic achievement – higher education, employment, better social status and image and so on.
In other words, the counsellor instils an appropriate motive in the low achiever. Consequently this drives him to action towards meeting his need – hard systematic work followed by a higher score.
Motivation Cycle
Motivation is also viewed as a cyclic process. Motivation
begins with a need (drive, motive). This gives rise to an
instrumental behaviour (any target oriented behaviour), which, if successful, leads to a goal. This, in turn, relieves the need. When one need is met, another need emerges and the cycle follows:
Types of Motivation
Immediate Vs. Remote
Immediate motivation refers to a situation where an
individual is interested in learning a skill to solve a current, immediate or fast approaching problem. A student devotes his attention to studies by burning midnight oil for the examination of the following day.
Remote motivation capitalizes on long time goals. A
student is particular about his mastery of Mathematics right from
middle school stage as he aspires to join an Engineering college
after Higher secondary. His friend is particular about this mastery
of Biology at the higher secondary stage (even earlier) as he
aspires to join a Medical college. A third student is particular about
his mastery of English (written and spoken) right from his secondary stage since he aspires to appear for civil services
examination later. All the three are likely to reach their goals in
around 7 years hence their goals are fairly remote.
Longtime goals are of course powerful force of motivation
but they must be reinforced periodically by immediate motivation.
Immediate motivation and remote motivation are not contradictory
but complementary. A series of sequentially linked immediate
goals, if reached in a phased manner, will lead the individual to his remote goals.
Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic
Intrinsic motivation is directly based on learning the
activity or the subject. Achievement in the activity or task is its
own reward. Achievement is an end itself, not a means to an end;
individual derives pleasure in performing the task; he is not
bothered about its outcome, its utility to him financially or
otherwise. The individual feels he becomes himself while engaging
in that activity – a kind of self-fulfillment (eg. Art for Art's sake
and similar slogans). High achievers in every field (Great scholars,
scientists, philosophers, Great political and social leaders) are intrinsically motivated in their missions.
Extrinsic motivation refers to performing an activity,
learning a subject because of the benefits, positive results which
are useful to the individual in some way or other – prize, medals,
incentives, financial benefits, other conveniences, social approval
or avoidance of punishment or disapproval. Extrinsic motivation is a means to an end (not an end is itself).
Most of us – almost all of us are only extrinsically
motivated. This equally applies to the student motivation. Teachers
should periodically bring to the notice of the students the openings
– job opportunities for high achievers in the subjects of study
taught by them. This is one way of motivating them for study.
Some students may take off from extrinsic motivation into
intrinsic if the course of study appeals to them (beyond job
opportunities) and if teachers themselves are intrinsically
motivated. Intrinsic motivation cannot be taught; it must be caught
from others (especially from teachers). Extrinsically motivated
students will prepare for the examinations; intrinsically motivated
students will master knowledge of the subjects of study.
Successful and happy people, by and large, are intrinsically
motivated in their work. There is absolutely no harm in starting
with extrinsic motivation; but after a time we must take off and
become intrinsically motivated. This will lead to success and happiness.
Factors Affecting Motivation
- Level of Aspiration
Setting up too high a goal beyond the potentialities of the
individual will have disturbing effects causing frustration and disappointment. Such experiences bring in negative reactions like
feelings of inferiority. Setting up too low a goal well below the
potentialities of the individual will not challenge the individual and
is likely to demotivate him. Level of aspiration must match the
potential of the individual. In other words, it must be reachable if
he is at his best (it must be reasonably high enough to challenge him, but not beyond his potential reach).
-Pragmatic outlook
Another factor is the practical value or usefulness of the
knowledge or skill being learnt. Extrinsic motivation is based on pragmatic outlook.
Forms of Motivation
- Reward and Punishment
Reward is commonly accepted as a positive form of
motivation and punishment as a negative one. Good work is
rewarded and bad work is punished. Individuals must realize that it
is the quality of work that is rewarded or punished and not the
individuals. This will make people who perform good work
continue their good work and try to improve quality further and
this principle will make people who perform bad work improve the
quality of their performance gradually so that they too will be
rewarded sooner or later (sooner than later). Unless absolutely
essential, punishment is to be avoided. Young children may not
fully understand why they are punished and they are likely to
develop hostile attitude towards people who punish them.
- Social Motives
Praise and Reproof as indicators of social approval and
social disapproval respectively constitute another form of
motivation. High quality work of the gifted and some marginal
improvement of the low achievers may be praised. Indifferent
work of the gifted and stubborn and intentional poor work of the
low achiever may be reproved. Praise and Reproof in school
situations, students must understand, become approval and disapproval of society later.
- Competition
Competition, if healthy, is fairly effective as a motive at the
school stage; but if it is carried beyond limits it may have
undesirable effects on the personality of the individuals. Top
achieving students, at times, indulge in malpractices in the
examination hall because of pressure of topping the class. There
are times when competitions become unhealthy. Sportspersons
using drugs to win medals is another illustration of unhealthy competition.
In place of individual competitions, group competitions
are being introduced. Competition may be placed by group work
based on co-operation, team spirit and comradeship. The best form
of competition is self-competition. Individuals must be encouraged
to excel their previous performance. 'Top the list' is to be replaced by 'give your best'.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's approach to motivation was different from his
predecessors' working on motivation. He studied highly motivated
people, happy, positive-thinking going about their normal daily
routines on and off the job. He attempted to find why these people
were so highly motivated, what made them tick, how they got that
and why, and how they maintained this high state of motivation
day in and day out. His theory was called theory of need
gratification or growth motivation. Based on his study he
structured a hierarchy of needs. He arranged these needs into a five level sequence as below:
Physical needs refer to needs for food, sleep, health,
exercise, rest and sex or any other need related to the body.
Safety and security needs refer to needs for physical safety
and security, protection, comfort and peace, absence of threats or
danger, orderly and neat surroundings.
Love and belongingness needs refer to needs for emotional
safety and security, acceptance, belongingness, affiliation to a
group, love and affection and group participation.
Self-esteem needs refer to needs for recognition, prestige,
confidence, leadership, achievement, competence and success.
Self actualization needs refer to needs for self fulfilment,
realization of potential, doing things for challenge, intellectual
curiosity, creativity and aesthetic appreciation and the like.
The first two lower levels are called D needs (Deficiency).
The subsequent three higher levels in the hierarchy are called B
needs (Being). Satisfaction of needs follow a definite sequence –
hierarchy – from the lowest to the highest. Only when the needs at
a particular level are satisfied the individual will think of making
an attempt to meet the needs of subsequent higher levels.
According to Maslow, forcing individuals to meet their needs 'out
of order' (skipping the hierarchy) was a major reason why people
were poor in their performance and experienced frustration,
hostility, indifference and other negative reactions. If, on the other
hand, these needs were met in order as indicated in the hierarchy of
Maslow, individuals would co-operate, follow positive ways of
conducting themselves and move towards the higher levels of
motivation. Highly motivated subjects showed greater satisfaction
and interest in helping others. Less motivated people were more
self-centered and tended to use negative and socially unacceptable
means in meeting their needs. Maslow arrived at this conclusion:
Getting people to co-operate, help others (motivating them) is a
matter of helping them move form the lower needs upward to the
higher needs following the hierarchical sequence. According to Maslow, “we do not motivate anybody; people are motivated by
their own needs”. Our job, as a motivator, will be to identify the
need level where people have got stuck up and help them move up.
Parents must see to it that the legitimate needs of children are met
reasonably well. Reasonably nutritious food, healthcare, exercise,
sleep and rest are the legitimate basic needs of children.
Reasonably a good residence – pollution free and hygienic
conditions around will give them physical safety and security.
Conducive emotional climate at home marked by love and
affection will meet the psychological needs of children.
Recognition for good work and adequate support and opportunities
for activities of their choice based on interest and aptitude will
meet the self-esteem needs of children. Conducive home climate –
cognitive, aesthetic and emotional will help children reach self-actualization.
Whatever is advocated to parents is equally applicable to
teachers and close relatives. Teachers must be sensitive to
individual differences. Children differ from one another in family
background, socio-economic status, degree of maturity,
intelligence, personality, aptitude, attitude, interests and such other
factors. Teacher should find the need level where the learner has
got stuck up and employ resourceful motivation techniques to help him move up.
McClelland's Achievement Motivation :
According to McClelland, achievement motivation is the
desire to attain a specific standard of excellence. Individuals differ
from one another in achievement motivation. Achievement
motivation is not inborn or inherited. Heredity or nature does not
play any significant role in achievement motivation. Achievement
motivation can be cultivated in individuals by environment
(nurture) by creating a conducive atmosphere (or climate) for instilling the motive to achieve.
Achievement motivation constitute three components
(drives) – cognitive, ego-enhancement, affective. The cognitive
achievement refers to knowledge mastery in the chosen field,
intellectual pursuits, academic achievement and the like. The ego-
enhancement drive refers to the need for improving the image of
the individual in social status, through achievement. The affective
drive is to win social approval through love, affection and other iner emotions.
The most popular methods for measuring achievement
motivation have been projective techniques. An ambiguous
(vague) picture is presented to the subject and he is directed to
write on “what is happening? What is being thought of? What has
led to this situation? And what will happen? Pictures suggested a
work situation (Psychomotor domain – men working at a
machine), a study situation (cognitive domain – a boy seated at a
desk with a book in front of him) and a father – son situation
(affective domain). The responses are analyzed to find the degree
of achievement motivation and the domains of his choice.
Too much pressure or too much perceived pressure may
result in low achievement motivation. Other factors which
influence achievement motivation are the gender of the learner,
size of his family, occupation of parents, culture, his intelligence, attention, attitude and interest.
Attempts to develop the motive to achieve are most likely
to succeed if the individual meets the following conditions:
- Understand that the new motive is realistic and reasonable.
- Can clearly specify the various aspects of the motive.
- Can link the motive to related functions in every day life.
- Sees the motive as an improvement of his self-image.
- Commits himself to achieving concrete goals related to the newly formed motive.
- Keeps a record of his progress.
- Works in an atmosphere of support.
Implication for Education
Motivation can be increased by increasing the need for
achievement. Motivation can be developed in stages in a phased
manner, through deliberate training programmes and incidental
classroom interaction. Training in behaviour on how to take
moderate risks, how to develop self-confidence in one's ability to
solve long range problems, how to be challenged by moderately
difficult tasks, how to look for feed back in one's long range
performance would help the individuals develop a need for high achievement.
Motivational Functions of the Teacher
Arousal function – To energise the students for their learning,
teachers should guard against monotony and boredom, becoming
frantic or overanxious; it refers to the general state of excitability –
general level of alertness, responsiveness, wakefulness or
diligence. Teachers must be sensitive to individual differences in
learning. They must be resourceful in class room teaching,
maintaining a conducive class room climate for effective learning
and employing a variety of teaching techniques ensuring student
involvement and attention. Teaching is to be learner-centred not teacher-centred .
Expectancy function
Expectancy is a cognitive anticipation usually aroused by
cues in a situation that performance of an act will be followed by a
particular consequence (If I work hard, I will get high scores).
Post-success conditions the students to more realistic increases in
their expectancies. Post-failure over a time conditions the students
to lower their expectancies. The expectancy function of the teacher
requires him to relate intermediate experiences to immediate and
remote goals of the students and to energize their best efforts in learning.
Incentive Function
Incentives are actually goal objects. They may be concrete
or symbolic. The vigour of an activity is affected by the effect of
the incentive provided. Incentives may be viewed as positive or
negative. Teacher's praise, approval provide satisfaction and hence
it is positive. The negative ones provide a sense of relief-
submitting an assignment in time to avoid teacher's reproof or
disapproval. Teacher incentive function must match the ability of
the student – praise, reproof, encouragement, competition, co-
operation feedback of test results to be judiciously used.
Disciplinary Function
Punishment is a stimulus the individual seeks to escape or
avoid. Suppression of the undesired response and the provision of
an alternately rewarded response may be the most effective
procedure. Artful combination of punishment and reward as a
disciplinary technique is called restitution. As punishment has a
ripple–effect, non-threatening techniques may be employed.
Motivation in the Classroom
Teachers, if intrinsically motivated in their subjects of
study, can intrinsically motivate their students to gain mastery in their subjects.
Teachers can make learning meaningful by applying
pedagogic principles of learning. This will motivate students to learn.
By employing appropriate techniques of teaching, teachers can
interest the students and develop in them a positive and
favourable attitude towards learning.
Setting before the students specific learning objectives and
reinforcing their longtime goals by immediate goals, teachers can motivate the students.
Ego-involvement or self-concept of the students is a powerful motivating device.
Teacher personality plays a vital role in motivation. If he is impressive, pleasing with effective communication skills he can easily motivate his students.
INTELLIGENCE
Content outline: Intelligence – Definitions – Structure of
Intelligence– Spearman's, Thurstone's – Types of Intelligence (Thorndike) – Guilford's structure of Intellect – Multiple
Intelligence (Gardner) – Emotional Intelligence – Stretching the definition of Intelligence -Testing of Intelligence – I.Q. – Constancy of IQ – Distribution of I.Q. – Types of Intelligence Tests – Limitations of Intelligence Tests – Differential Studies – Potential and Functional Intelligence – Uses of Intelligence tests –
Aptitude Tests.
Intelligence is different from knowledge though it is related
to it. Knowledge refers to stock of ideas, store of ideas, the
apperception mass of an individual. Intelligence is not knowledge
but the ability to acquire knowledge and use it on requirement.
Wisdom refers to right use of intelligence (and knowledge) with a
sense of discrimination between right and wrong, good and evil. It has ethical implications.
Intelligence has been variously defined – as an adjustment
or adaptation of the individual to his total environment, as the
ability to learn, as the ability to carry on abstract thinking. There
are around one hundred definitions on intelligence – definitions
furnished by psychologists. Here are two comprehensive
definitions: According to Wechsler, intelligence is the aggregate or
global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally and to deal effectively with environment. The
implications of his definition are: Intelligence is an overall
capacity; it has three equally important components – purposeful,
goal oriented, objective-oriented, meaningful activity; applying reasoning to thinking and subsequently to acting (as opposed to emotionality); ability to pull on nicely in society with a high degree of adjustment. According to Stoddard, intelligence is the ability to undertake activities that are characterized by difficulty,
complexity, abstractness, economy, adaptiveness to a goal, social
value, emergence of originals and to maintain such activities under
conditions that demand a concentration of energy and resistance to
emotional forces. This definition seems to be the most
comprehensive definition. It implies: Intelligence is manifest in
activity; not any activity but difficult activities and complex ones
(more than one difficulty); it is manifest in abstract activity;
economy refers to economy of time; it implies the speed with
which an activity is performed by the individual; intelligent
activity is a goal oriented activity; it has social implications
(socially useful and valued); it must have a mark of originality; an
intelligent activity requires concentration of energy and an ability
to remain unemotional – cool, calm and collected.
Psychologists made serious attempts to define intelligence.
Each definition attempts to emphasize one or more aspects of
intelligence which the psychologist thought to be prominent or of
prime importance. This is applicable to even the comprehensive
definitions discussed. A clear understanding of intelligence is
likely to emerge if attempts are made to study the structure of
intelligence and the types of intelligence.
Structure of Intelligence:
Mental ability is analysed to determine its underlying
factors. In other words, the purpose of this analysis is to discover
the elements or components of intelligence.
According to multifactor theory of Thorndike, intelligence
constitutes a multitude of separate factors or elements each one
being a minute element of ability. A mental act involves a number
of these minute elements operating together. If performance on any
two tasks are positively correlated, the degree of relationship is due
to the number common elements involved in these two tasks
(transfer of learning: theory of identical elements).
According to the Two factor theory of Spearman, all intellectual activity depends primarily upon and is an expression of
a general factor denoted by the symbol G possessed by all
individuals but in different degrees. Mental tasks differ in respect
to their demands upon this general factor. Spearman characterized
this general factor as mental energy. This general factor G is
involved in all cognitive performances. In addition every
intellectual activity is also found to involve one or more specific
factors related to that activity, referred to as S. Different cognitive
functions will require different 'G' loadings. Certain operations like
arithmetic reasoning or even vocabulary require a high G loading.
Musical appreciation may depend more on a special ability and
less on G. G relates to one's ability for seeing relationships.
Relations and correlates are the two basic operations depending on
G. According to Spearman only tests, which are designed to test
the ability to deduce relations and correlates will be able to
measure G loading that an individual possesses.
Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities
Intermediate between these two theories (Thorndike and
Spearman) are the group factor theories. Prominent among them is
that of Thurstone's. His work has resulted in the construction of a
set of measures called tests of primary mental abilities. Intelligent
activity is not an expression of innumerable highly specific factors
as Thorndike conceived of nor is it an expression of primarily of a
general factor that pervades all mental activity and is the essence
of intelligence as Spearman held. Instead certain mental operations
have, in common, a primary factor that gives them a psychological
and functional unity that differentiates them from other mental operations. These mental operations constitute a group and are denoted by 7 letters – NVWMSPR.
N – Numerical ability – ability to perform fundamental
operations (with integers, fractions and decimals) with ease and accuracy.
V – Verbal comprehension – ability to define and understand the meanings of words, phrases, sentences, thought contained in a paragraph.
W – Word fluency – ability to think and use words rapidly
– word power – a rich vocabulary.
M – Memory – ability to register, recall and recognize
materials.
S – Space factor – ability to deal with three dimensional
figures – to draw a design from memory or to visualize
relationships.
P – Perceptual factor – ability to grasp visual details and
identify similarities and differences between objects.
R – Reasoning (inductive and deductive) – ability to find
rules, principles, concepts for understanding and solving problems.
No individual is equally proficient or equally deficient in
all the seven primary mental abilities – factors of intelligence identified by Thurstone.
Types of Intelligence
Thorndike identified three types of intelligence – abstract
concrete and social.
Abstract intelligence refers to the ability of the individual
to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical symbols; to
deal with thoughts and ideas (abstract concepts).
Concrete intelligence (practical, mechanical) refers to the
ability of the individual to understand and deal with things as in skilled occupations and mechanical appliances.
Social intelligence refers to the ability of the individual to
understand and deal with people.
No individual is equally proficient or equally deficient in
all the three types of intelligence identified by Thorndike.
Individuals who have a high degree of abstract intelligence shine in academic and intellectual pursuits.
Individuals who have a high degree of concrete intelligence shine in mechanical work and practical fields.
Individuals who have a high degree of social intelligence
shine in fields which require healthy interpersonal relations and ability to deal with people.
Guilford's Structure of Intellect - Three Faces of Intellect.
Cognition
Guilford conducted a series of studies and classified all
intellectual abilities into a systematic framework called 'The
Structure of Intellect' (the three faces of intellect). According to
this model human intelligence can ultimately can be broken into
120 factors; not all of them have been discovered as yet.
Guilford classified intellectual factors in three different
ways: - Content, Operation, Product.
(i) Content refers to the kind of information involved.
Fourdifferent types have been identified.
- Figural – involves concrete objects.
- Symbolic – information represented by
means of symbols, as in mathematics.
- Semantic – meanings , verbal comprehension
and general reasoning.
- Behavioural – similar to social
intelligence of Thorndike.
(ii) Operation – Five types of operation that can be performed
on a particular bit of information.
- Cognition (understanding and comprehension)
- Memory
- Covergent production (ability to derive one right
solution to a problem from the information provided)
- Divergent production (Devising a number of
possible solutions to the problem posed by a particular
set of information. This is believed to be a vital factor
in creative thinking).
The result of convergent or divergent production is production of new information.
- Evaluation (involving judgements as to accuracy,
goodness, suitability or workability)
(iii) Product
There are six different forms which each type of
content may take – referred to as products.
- unit – a single item of information
- class – a group of units with common properties
- relation – information may also come in this form
- system – between two things, or more complex
involving a number of parts.
- transformation – information involving some form of
change
- implication – involving possibilities offered by a piece of
information.
Multiple Intelligence (MI)
Howard Gardner coined the term Multiple Intelligence (s),
each relatively independent of others - word smart, number smart,
music smart, space smart, body smart, self smart, people smart,
and nature smart. Thus the eight forms of MI are Linguistic,
Logical - Mathematical, Musical, Spartial, Bodily - Kinaestheitc,
Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Naturalistic. Gardner also
speculates about a ninth possible intelligence – “existential
intelligence” –“ the ability to ponder large questions about life, death, existence”.
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Peter Salovey and John Mayer Coined the term Emotional
Intelligence - the ability to perceive, express, understand and
regulate emotions. According to them “Intelligence” can be
classified into “Intellectual” (Thorndike’s Abstract) and “Emotional” (Thorndike’s ‘Social’). The five basic components of
Emotional Intelligence are self - awareness, self - regulation, motivation,
empathy and social skills. Self – appraisal inventories to assess one’s
Emotional Intelligence and subsequently assess one’s E.Q. (Emotional
Quotient).have been structured.
Stretching of the definition of Intelligence
Traditional Psychologists are not happy at the stretching of
the conventional definition of Intelligence. They feel that
Intelligence refers to mental abilities. According to them non -
mental abilities need not be included in it since they may be
included in (special) “talents” or “aptitude”. They are not happy
over the attempts being made by several modern psychologists to
include whatever ability they value (whether mental or non -
mental) in “ntelligence” since there is a prestige tag attached to it.
They do agree that there are several non - mental abilities which
facilitate success and happiness in life but this does not justify their
inclusion in “Intelligence” However, inspite of their protests,
“Intelligence” has, today, crossed its cognitive borders and has
occupied the “affective” and psychomotor domains. For example
today E.Q. (Emotional Quotient - an index of E.I.) is as important
as I.Q. (“Intelligence” Quotient) and at times often more important
than I.Q. for success and happiness in life.
Testing of Intelligence
Credit for construction of the first individual intelligence
scale goes to Alfred Binet. With the assistance of Theodore Simon
(a physician) he published the first edition of the now famous
Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale in 1905. There were limitations in
the original scale. Hence Binet and Simon revised and improved
their scales in 1911. Binet arranged his tests in what is called age
scale. Test items were assembled for different year levels and a child's intelligence was determined by the age level he could attain.
Binet and Simon developed the concept of mental age. A mental age of 9 means that the child can do the tasks regarded as appropriate of 9 years. There have been a number of revisions of
Binet's original scale. In 1917 Terman of Stanford University
revised the scale (Stanford-Binet tests). A more extensive scale
with two forms (equivalent) was developed by Terman with the
assistance of Merrill in 1937 (Terman-Merril scales). In 1960
another revision was done.
With Binet-Simon scales and later revisions as frames of
reference, psychologists and educationists throughout the world
have structured and validated a series of intelligence tests. Arnold
Gesell constructed intelligence tests for children upto 3 years.
Wechsler structured intelligence tests for adults (average adult and
superior adult).
Intelligence Quotient
Intelligence quotient was originally defined as ratio of
mental age with chronological age (as revealed from the date of birth of the child).
Intelligence Quotient = Mental Age / Chronological
Age Later it was multiplied by 100 to arrive at whole
numbers.
Intelligence Quotient (I.Q) - ୣ୬୲ୟ୪ ୣ
େ୦୰୭୬୭୪୭୧ୡୟ୪ X 100 ;
MA
𝐶𝐴 X 100
In 1916 Binet-Simon revised format there are tests from 3
year level to 14 year level; in addition tests for average adult (CA
= 16.5) and superior adult (CA = 19.5). Each year level consists of
6 subtests. If a child passes one test it is given a score of 2 months
(towards his MA). There are no tests for age 11 and age 13. Hence
at the 12 year level the child is given a score of 3 months for
passing one subtest (there are 8 subtests for the 12 year level).
Similarly a child is given a score of 4 months for passing one
subtest at the 14 year level (there are 6 subtests for the 14 year
level). The examiner goes down in the test until the level is reached where the subject passes all the items. This is called the
basal year. The examiner then proceeds upward in the scale until
the level is reached where the subject fails all the items. This level
is called the terminal year. Each test carries specific credit, in
terms of months, contributing to the mental age score. These
credits are added to the age value of the basal year. The total is the
mental age.
The psychologist makes the child feel at home and
administers the tests in accordance with the established
procedure. If the child is judged to be below normal the test begins
with the items well below those designed for his
chronological age level. Should the child appear average the first
items administered are those meant for children just one year
below his chronological age level. The objective is to give the
child a taste of success in the initial stages of testing so that he will be motivated best.
Here is an illustration for calculation of I.Q.
Age of the child = 6 years (C.A.)
Mental Age
3 year level – all tests passed
4 year level - all tests passed
5 year level – all tests passed
---
---
(Basal year – full credit) ..................... 5 x 12 = 60
6 year level – 5 tests passed ………..5 x 2 = 10
7 year level – 3 tests passed.............. 3 x 2 = 6
8 year level – 1 test passed ................ 1 x 2 = 2
9 year level – No test passed ………0 x 2 = 0
(Terminal year) 78
IQ = MA x 100 = 78 x 100
CA 72
Constancy of Intelligence Quotient
It is seen that the mental age is increasing with chronological age but not the intelligence quotient. This is known
as the constancy of intelligence quotient. This concept has raised a
number of problems – the limits of the mental age. Physical growth
and development stops mostly by the time the individual reaches
the later adolescent stage. Similarly the mental growth also stops
somewhere between 16 and 20. This does not mean that the adult
above 20 is intellectually the same as he was in his 16th year. His
capacity may be the same but his actual achievement will naturally
be different because of experience and learning. So as a practical
device in computing the intelligence quotient of an adult,
chronological age is always taken to be 16 or 18 or 20 depending
upon the nature of the test used (average adult, superior adult).
Measured I.Q. is constant because mental age increases in parallel
with chronological age. Mental age reaches the maximum limit by
the age of around 20 and it remains more or less the same for a
period of 10-20 years. The degree of decline thereafter depends
upon factors like health (physical), motivation, interest, attitude and the like.
Distribution of Intelligence Quotient in General Population
If we measure intelligence of a large number of people
forming a good representative of the general population and plot
the results in the form of a graph, we get one that assumes a
definite shape. This is called the NPC (normal probability curve)
-bell shaped and symmetrial
– bell shaped and symmetrical. Or a Histogram / Bar Diagram
Intelligence Quotient:
90 – 110 - Normal (50% of the population)
110-120 - Above Normal
120-130 - Superior (Bright)
140 above - very superior (Brilliant)
80-90 - below normal
70-80 - Dull
60-70 - Borderline
Below 60 - Mentally Retarded
Only rarely one in one thousand we find either a genius
(brilliant) or an extremely feeble minded person (mentally
retarded). MR (the mentally retarded) can be classified into three
categories – educable, trainable, custodial.
Educable MR are those dull children who will learn
something if intensive and extensive instruction is offered by teachers with patience through drill, review and repetition
(recurring learning experiences). To that extent they are educable.
We can make their heads function.
Trainable MR are not educable in the sense we cannot
make their heads function. But their hands can be trained. We can
make their hands function. They may be trained in some semi-
skilled or unskilled work which requires training in motor activities.
Custodial MR can neither be educated nor trained; they are
permanent social liabilities; they must be in the safe custody of
elders of the family or others. They cannot even protect themselves
from danger or threats – infrahuman in behaviour though human in physique.
Group Tests and Individual Tests
Intelligence tests can be classified under categories of
group tests and individual tests. These two types of tests have been
constructed mostly to meet practical necessities. If a large number
of subjects are to be tested, it would be more convenient to test
them in large groups to save time. But under certain situations as in
a guidance clinic each individual must be tested separately.
Verbal and Non-verbal Tests
Non-verbal tests were developed when people of different
languages or those not good at verbal ability had to be tested. Non-
verbal tests are also called performance tests (paper and pencil
tests) since in these tests one has to perform some kind of motor
activities for which directions are given. The test items involve the same factors of intelligence.
Limitations of Intelligence Tests
Three main objections are levelled against Stanford-Binet revision.
- A child who comes from a better environment will be in a
more advantageous position than another from a comparatively
ill equipped home. As against this objection tests are devised to measure the factors of intelligence or primary abilities
rather than knowledge.
- Children who have a better vocabulary will have an undue
advantage since all these tests are verbal. To meet this
objection various types of non-verbal tests have been
developed.
- The tests of Binet and Terman are, to a large extent, bound
by cultural factors. As such they can only be used within a
particular area. Some psychologists have attempted to construct
tests avoiding influences of cultural factors calling them culture
free tests (free from one particular culture) or culture fair tests (fair to all cultures).
Differential Studies
Studies have indicated that there is no gender difference in
intelligence. If a random sample of boys and girls is chosen and an
intelligence test is administered to the sample, it will be found that
the average Intelligent quotient of boys will be almost equal to
average Intelligence quotient of girls. Male superiority in certain
factors like N, S, R and female superiority in certain the factors
like V, W, P as findings of earlier research studies have now been
exploded. Teacher evaluation of the intelligence of an individual is
not to be based on sex or gender but to be based on performance.
Studies have further indicated that there is no particular
race, community, culture or caste superior to others in intelligence.
Potential Intelligence and Functional Intelligence
We come across a few students (boys and girls) who
happen to be below average at the primary level in respect to their
academic achievement. They become average students at the
secondary school level. They become above average (some of
them even superior) students at the higher education level. They
are called 'late bloomers'. They seem to have become more
intelligent gradually. But, intelligence quotient is constant. The
apparent increase in their Intelligence quotient is definitely a fallacy. The fact is that they have been intelligent right from the
beginning but unfortunately the classroom climate at the lower
level has not been conducive for using their mental abilities. When
the class room climate gradually becomes conducive it gradually
unfolds their mental abilities. Their potential intelligence starts
functioning. Garrison identifies two levels of operation of
intelligence – potential and functional. If intelligence remains only
as a potential but does not function it is of no use. Here is an
illustration; there are two individuals A and B. A has an
Intelligence quotient of 130 and B has an Intelligence quotient of
120. B is a success; A is not a success. How do you account for it?
B makes the best use of his Intelligence (his potential functions)
but A does not make the best use of his Intelligence (his potential
does not function). Home climate, classroom climate, campus
climate and social climate must be conducive for effective
functioning of potential intelligence. Success in life depends upon
one's ability to convert potential intelligence into functional one.
Uses of Intelligence Tests
- Educational guidance: Students may be assessed effectively
and given appropriate quality of work. It can also be found
whether a student's failure is due to lack of required mental
ability or due to lack of application to work (lack of
interest).
- Vocational guidance: Intelligence tests are used in any
judgement of vocational guidance and proper vocational
selection.
- Study of personality: There are psychologists who consider
intelligence an important component of one's personality
(Cattell). Without a knowledge one's intelligence quotient it
is not possible to get a clear picture of one's personality.
- Explosion of misconceptions: Modern intelligence tests
have also helped us to discard old misconceptions on the
superiority of male gender and superiority of a particular
race, community, culture, or caste over the others
Intelligence is gender free, race free, community free,
culture free, caste free.
- Nature and Nurture: We have been able to study the
relative influence of heredity and environment on
intelligence. Nature and nurture are interdependent on
functional intelligence.
- Concept of Intelligence: The process of test construction
has sharpended and made clear the very concept of
intelligence – composite nature of this general mental
ability.
Aptitude
An aptitude is a combination of characteristics indicative of
an individuals' capacity to acquire (with training) some specific
knowledge, skill or a set of organized responses such as ability to
speak a language, to become a musician, to do mathematical work.
An aptitude test, therefore, is one designed to measure a person's
potential ability in an activity of a specialized kind and within a restricted range.
Aptitude tests are to be distinguished from those of general
intelligence and from tests of skill or profiliency acquired after
training or experience. They should be distinguished from
educational achievement tests, which are designed to measure an
individual's quantity, and quality of learning in a specified subject of study after a period of instruction.
Aptitude is different from skill or profiliency. Skill means
ability to perform a given act with ease and precision. Proficiency
has much the same meaning, except that it is more comprehensive,
for it includes not only skills in certain types of motor and mental
activities, but also other types of activities as shown by the extent
of one's competence in language and in different academic disciplines. We may speak of one's proficiency in any type of
performance. On the other hand when we speak of an individual’s
aptitude for a given type of activity we mean the capacity to
acquire proficiency under appropriate conditions, that is, his
potentialities at present as revealed by his performance.
The terms aptitude, ability or capacity mean more or less
the same factor and are often used interchangeably. Aptitude is
potential; it is revealed in performance; aptitude has future
reference in that it sets limits of what a person will achieve when
given opportunity and training. Achievement, on the other hand, is
actual performance; it is what the person does regardless of his
capacities. Aptitude is what one can do; achievement is what one
does.
Intelligence tests (general mental ability tests) are usually
employed in educational guidance and counselling.
They are limited in scope. For vocational guidance and counselling
aptitude tests are largely being used. According to one school of thought,
intelligence tests are only academic aptitude tests. DAT (Differential
Aptitude Test) is being used today. Aptitude tests have been structured and
validated to test aptitudes related to verbal, numerical, spatial, perceptual,
artistic, aesthetic, musical, mechanical, social, scientific,
clerical,managerial, practical and the like.
PERSONALITY
Content outline: Personality – Meaning and Allport's
definition - Jung's typology- Typologies and Approach to
Personality – Eysenk's dimensions-MMPI – Cattell's factors – EPPS; The Big Five Personality factors; CPI- Throndike and Hagen's segments of personality – Assessment of personality – Trait approach – Holistic approach – Methods of assessment –
Interview – Rating scale – Behaviour inventory – Situational tests
– Projective techniques – Rorschach – TAT – WAT – SCT – VPT
– Personality profile –-Social learning theory - Integration of
personality – The social – cognitive perspective.
The most distinctive feature of any individual is his
personality. This is his overall pattern or integration of his
structures, modes of behaviour, interests, attitudes, intellectual
abilities and many other characteristics – the whole individual.
Viewing a person as he goes about the various activities of everyday life we usually obtain a total impression of his personality as agreeable or disagreeable, dominating or submissive, explosive or cool, calm and collected, impressive or unimpressive, pleasing or displeasing and the like.
Allport defines personality as the dynamic organization
within an individual of psychophysical systems which determine his unique adjustments to his environment.
The implications of his definition are: personality is
dynamic (not static) – ever active, a changing continuum; it is an organized pattern of behaviour; both physical and psychic aspects of the individual determine his personality. The keynote of personality is his unique way of adjustment with his environment –the unique (his own) techniques he employs to maintain harmony – intra harmony (within the individual) and inter harmony (with the outside world).
Personality, thus, refers to the total quality of an individual.
It implies the physical, intellectual, emotional and social aspects of
his individuality. It is obvious that certain aspects of the individual
having social significance contribute more than others to his
personality. The aspect of the personality picture that predominates
is always the social aspect – personality is the social self; the role
played in social relations; social effectiveness (the extent to which
an individual is effective in social situations) is the acid test of one's personality.
Typologies
According to ancient Hindu scriptures (Vedas, Upanishads
and Bhagavad Gita) there are three major GUNAS (Qualities) in
human beings - Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Based on dominant - the
pre gunas of the individuals they can be classified as three
personality types.
The characteristics of Sattva are :- harmony ; light
(prakasha or knowledge) ; bliss; supreme peace ; cheerfulness ;
emotional balance ; purity of nature ; contentment ; constant
devotion to Atman ; absence of pride, hatred, hypocrisy, lust, anger
; desire for liberation ; spiritual dispostion, faith, detachment from
the unreal, wisdom, enquiry, meditative inclination.
The attributes of Rajas are :- lust ; anger ; greed ;arrogance
; hatred ; pride, hypocrisy, jealousy and such other negative traits.
The characteristics of Tamas are ;- Ignorance, stupidity,
carelessness, lethargy, dullness, perverted intellect.
Human beings are a mixture of the three gunas - in
different proportions. Even the sattva type of human beings
occasionally exhibit behaviours of Rajas or Tamas Ancient
Greeks described personality based on bodily “humours” or fluids -
Melancholic (depressed), Sanguine (cheerful), phlegmatic
(unemotional) or choleric (irritable).
Sheldon classified people by body type - plump endomorph (Sociable, relaxed and even tempered), muscular - mesomorph
(bold and physically active), thin - ectomorph (restrained self -
conscious and solitary).
Typologies based on “ humours” or “ body type” have lost
their validity today.
Carl Jung‟s typology based on social interaction of an
individual is popular today, especially in Management Studies. He
refers to individuals as introverts or extroverts. The introvert is
inwardly reflective, reserved, less talkative and is likely to react
negatively to and to withdraw from situations. The extrovert, on
the other hand, is likely to react positively to situations, outwardly
expressive, talkative and active in making social contacts. Most
individuals are neither extreme introverts nor extreme extroverts
but somewhere in between - ambiverts. According to one school of
thought it is often the situation that makes the individual introvert
or extrovert.
The Myers - Briggs Type Indicator classifies people into
two types – “thinking” type and “feeling” type. “Thinking” people
are supposed to prefer an objective standard of truth and good at
analytical skills‟. “ Feeling” people are supposed to be sensitive to
values, kind, sympathetic and appreciative. But the scientific
worth of the Myers - Briggs Type Indicator (126 questions : e.g.
Do you usually value sentiment more than logic, or value logic
more than sentiment? - to test the preferences of the subjects) is
being questioned by several researchers in the field of Psychology.
Further it is again situation that stimulates “thinking” ‘ (Head oriented)
approach or ‘feeling‟ (Heart oriented) approach in individuals,
according to some psychologists.
Psychologists attempted to describe personality in terms of
basic traits – people’s characteristic behaviours and conscious
motives - in terms of identifiable behaviour patterns. They were
concerned less with explaining individual traits than with
describing them. Trait approach is a popular approach to study personality of an individual. It goes on the assumption that
personality is a summation of traits which can be identified and
measured. There are numerous personality traits.
A technique called factor analysis (a statistical procedure)
attempts to identify clusters of behaviours which are closely
related and label each cluster with an appropriate attribute. Most
psychologists who advocated trait approach performed factor
analysis to identify clusters of behaviours - Traits of personality.
MMPI
The most extensively researched and extensively used
personality inventory is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI). (A personality inventory is a questionnaire to
which subjects respond indicating their feelings, behaviours,
reactions which reflect their personality traits). Although MMPI
assesses “abnormal” personality tendencies rather than normal
personality traits, it has been quite popular among personality
researchers. MMPI items were empirically tested. They were able
to discriminate between the criterion group (abnormal) and the
control group (normal). Hathaway and others structured hundreds
of “true – false” statements (e.g. none seems to understand me ; I
get all the sympathy I should ; I like Poetry).
Today’s MMPI - 2 was renormed on a population cross -
section with revised items. The first three scales are “ validity””
scales which help to determine whether the subject has responded
to statements frankly and honestly. The remaining (4 – 13) clinical
scales were originally named for categories of psychiatric
disorders, but the interpretation now refers to personality attributes
rather than diagnostic categories.
“false” to statements such as “I get angry sometimes” like
responses). Validity scales has 15 content scales assessing, for instance, work attitudes, family problems and anger.
With six or more points on the L scale the test results
become less valid.
High scores on the F scale indicate confusion or
carelessness - bizarre thinking invalidating the test results.
High scores on the K scale indicate the evasive or defensive response of the subject in his attempt to present himself in a socially desirable manner.
Personality inventories are scored objectively. (objectivity does not, however, guarantee validity). Self - report personality tests are popular in assessing personality traits. But peer reports provide more trust worthy information. Peers who have plenty of opportunities to observe the subjects in day - to - day life situations provide the acid test for assessing the personality traits of the subjects.
EPPS
The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) consists of pairs
of forced - choice items each balanced on “Social desirability” or “ Social
undesirability”. The subject must choose one of the two as being more
typical or more characteristic of him.
e.g. A.I like to be successful in things undertaken
B.I like to form new friendships.
(Both are socially acceptable / desirable; )
A.I feel depressed when I fail at something
B.I am nervous when talking before a group
(Both are socially undesirable / unacceptable)
The demerit of this method is that it reveals only relative
preference for one motive or feeling over another ; it does no tindicate the absolute level.
Edwards employed the fifteen needs or Motives of Murray (Harvard Psychological Clinic). Each of the 15 needs is paired with the other fourteen.
CPI
The California Psychological inventory (CPI) is another
personality test based on the method of empirical construction - based on the significant difference between criterion group and control group on the scale. It uses some of the questions of MMPI but it is designed to measure normal traits of personality. Some of the traits measured by CPI are dominance, sociability, self - acceptance, responsibility. (The Criterion group for dominance
consisted of persons rated by their peers as aggressive, assertive,
confident and self - reliant. The non - criterion (Control) group for “Low in dominance” consisted of persons rated by their peers as retiring, diffident, inhibited, dependent, submissive).
seek out and participate in certain activities.
Attitude refers to one's mind set or mental set.
Character refers to the ethical or moral self of an
individual; it is personality viewed from the ethical or moral stand
point.
Temperament refers to the characteristic mood of an
individual (some of us are usually cheerful; others are often
gloomy.)
Adjustment refers to harmony (intra and inter) - within the
individual; between the individual and society.
To have an effective personality, one must have positive
interests in life, have a positive attitude towards self, others, and
life in general, have a sound character, a nice temperament and a
high degree of adjustment.There are evaluative instruments to
study and interpret, interests exclusively. They are called interest
inventories.
There are evaluative instruments to study and interpret
attitudes exclusively. They are called attitude scales.
There are no well known standard evaluative instruments to
study character since there has been no consensus among
educationists, psychologists, sociologists and other researchers on
the operational definition of character. Character eludes precise
operational definition since the concept of the ingredients of
character varies from culture to culture, nation to nation, region to
region, even from individual to individual.
The well known standard personality inventories study and
interpret either temperament or adjustment or both. Some
personality inventories are also called Temperament surveys or Adjustment inventories.
Assessment of Personality
Many situations in everyday life require personality
assessment. There are three general approaches to personality
assessment. One is holistic or overall approach. According to
Munn, “personality is not a summation of all measurable traits; it is
a merger, a blend, an integration, an organized whole”.
Emphasis is placed upon evaluation of the person as a
whole. A second approach which also aims at assessing the whole
person but which does it less directly with more restricted testing
situations than the one mentioned earlier is the projective
approach. The third approach, by contrast with the other two, is
somewhat piecemeal. It goes upon the assumption that personality
is a constellation of traits and that these traits may be measured
separately. This is called Trait approach.
Psychology views the individual more analytically. The
elements of personality are called personality traits. Personality
tests are designed to reveal and measure them. There are
numerouspersonality traits – dimensions / factors of personality.
Some aspects of personality are evident for instance, friendliness,
general vigour, calmness in emergency, sociability and
cheerfulness. Such clearly evident aspects of personality are called
surface traits. There are also depth factors such as probias, manias,
self-negation, irrational desires and aspirations. Assessment of
such depth factors (unconscious) has always been a challenge to psychologists.
Methods of Assessment
- Interview
Interview may be either formal or informal or these two
may be combined. In the informal interview the adviser tries to get
definite information from the subject. In the informal interview the
adviser sets aside his list of questions and engages the subject in
conversation and gains many insights into the individual's
personality. The informal interview is often used to help people
with personality problems. In the formal interview the subject is
likely to become rigid and may not reveal his true personality. In the informal interview he feels at home with the interviewer,
becomes flexible and thus reveals his true personality.
- Rating Scale
The rating scale is a device for getting systematic
judgement of the extent to which an individual possesses certain
traits or exhibits certain modes of behaviour. One of the most
useful of these devices is the graphic rating scale.
In making graphic ratings, the judge indicates the degree to
which, in his opinion, the individual possesses the trait or
behaviour by placing a mark at the appropriate point along a line
taken to represent the personality trait.
The Questionnaire or Behaviour Inventory
The questionnaire presents a list of statements or queries
which are to be responded by checking one of the several possible
answers. The questionnaire is structured with three objectives. The
first is to get systematic information concerning the individual's
worries, problems, feelings of inadequacy and the like (These
inventories are called personal data sheets or sometimes trouble
sheets). Secondly the questionnaire has proved to be valuable as a
means of assessing a person's interest in a variety of
things/activities – people, books, sports and the like. Thirdly the
questionnaire is also used to get information regarding attitudes towards and beliefs about social, economic, political and religious
matters.
There are two approaches which personality inventory can
take. In the direct form, specific information is called for and
noeffort is made to conceal the meanings of the questions. The
subject may see through the questions and hence may answer in
the conventional way (real response will be substituted by the so
called right response). Hence in order to conceal the real purpose
the questionnaire may take the indirect or disguised approach. Here
is an illustration. Suppose you are structuring statements on the
study habits of college students. A direct statement runs thus: I
dilly-dally and waste time before getting down to my study:
Always / Often / Sometimes / Rarely / Never. An indirect
statement will be like this: The college student dilly-dallies and
wastes time before he gets down to study: Always / Often /
Sometimes / Rarely / Never.
The subject is likely to identify himself in 'The college
student' and reveal his true response.
Performance and Situational Tests
Psychologists set up situations in which an individual can
act out and thus exhibit personality traits or characteristics. The
puppet show and various dramatic situations have been employed
in studies of children who present behaviour problems or
personality difficulties. These performance tests allow children
who control the puppets to reveal unconsciously their wishes and
drives which often they cannot and will not reveal in public. Role play or socio drama may also be employed as a situational test. In Role play a situation is outlined elaborately and roles are allotted
to individuals. No prescribed dialogue is given. The dialogue each individual prepares and presents for his role will be an emotional release of his wishes and drives. Thus the psychologist will understand the depth factors of the personality of the individual which disturb him and make him a problem person.
ALSO READ: Psychology Affective Basics| Instincts, Feelings, Emotions, Mimesis
Projective Techniques
The purpose is to get the subject reveal motives, and
personality characteristics without knowing that he is doing so. To
accomplish this purpose, the person is presented with a vague
unidentified task and is asked to say something about it. The basic
idea of such a method is that when a subject hardly knows what he
is supposed to do but must do something he projects his own
personality into his performance. The great advantage of this
method is that the subject does not know what is being tested or
what interpretations the psychologists can make out of his results.
There are now several projective tests but the Rorschach inkblot
and Thematic appreciation test (TAT) were the two that are most widely known and used.
Rorschach Inkblot Test
It is named after Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss Psychiatrist.
It consists of ten inkblots. The cards are presented to the subject,
one at a time with a question, 'what does this remind you of?' After
a subject gives his responses to all cards, he is then asked to go
through them again and describe his responses in detail. 5 out of 10
cards are black and grey; 2 black and the remaining 3 entirely in
colours. All the responses of the subjects are scored in three main
aspects:
Location: Whether the subject uses some particular part or
whole blot in making responses.
Determinant: Whether the shading, colour, form of
movement of the blot suggests the response.
Content: Whether the subject sees animals, human beings,
or various other objects in making responses.
A large number of 'whole' responses may indicate abstract
theoretical traits whereas a large number of 'part' responses may
indicate a compulsive person occupied with trivialities. If
movement responses predominate, the subject is thought to have introvertive inclinations, but if colour responses are numerous, the
person is regarded as having warm, free, emotional characteristics.
Administration and interpretation of Rorschach inkblot
tests require a fully trained psychologist. Further if the method of
interpretation is known to the subjects, then they are likely to
conceal their real responses and thus they will not reveal their real
personality characteristics. If these precautions are taken care of
then Rorschach inkblot tests can yield valuable results in
identifying 'depth factors' of the personality of an individual.
TAT (Thematic Appreciation Test)
Credit for structuring TAT goes to Murray. TAT consists of
a series of pictures (20). They are ambiguous enough to permit a
variety of interpretation by the subjects projecting their motives,
feelings, modes of adjustment. When presented with a picture the
subject is asked to make a story based upon the picture. When the
subject makes up a story, he identifies himself with one of the
characters in the picture and these stories become disguised
biographies. In this way the subject reveals his feelings and desires
that he would otherwise hesitate to discuss openly or in some cases
would be unwilling to admit. It is interpreted by noting the
recurring themes in the stories, the feelings, emotions, attitudes,
values and interests of the main character, his relaltionship with
others and the overall emotional tone of the story – optimistic or
pessimistic or cynical or humorous and the like.
Inkblot tests reveal the structure or organization of an
individual's personality. TAT is devised to bring out primarily the content of one's personality.
Word Association Test (WAT)
The test consists of presenting a stimulus word to the
subject and asking him to give out a response word as quickly as
possible with the first word that comes to his mind. By such spontaneous responses the complexes or areas of emotional
conflicts are uncovered. The interpretation is based on two factors
– response and reaction time. Inability to make a response or mere
repetition of the stimulus word is also significant in understanding emotional blockings.
Sentence Competition Tests (SCT)
The subject is required to complete an incomplete sentence
the way he feels like.
Eg: I feel happy when ....
The best aspect of my job is .............
Verbal Projection Test (VPT)
Another test which attempts to combine the principles of
TAT and SCT is VPT. In this test verbal items of themes that could
make a story are given and the subject is required to construct a
story as in TAT. To make the stimulus unstructured the items will not be any way complete.
(e.g) Father and mother facing each other; son anxiously
looking at them. The items here are more unstructured than in TAT
and hence there is more scope for the individual to project his inner
personality traits.
Personality Profile
Psychologists sometimes attempt to represent personality
integration graphically by means of a chart or a profile. It is a
picture of the personality organization of an individual. It is the
pattern of behaviour traits that counts, not the specific, independent
behaviours. A profile taken alone does not clearly show the extent
to which personality traits are related. At the same time the profile
does provide useful information regarding the strengths (plus
points) and weaknesses (minus points) of an individual's
personality. When two or more reference groups are
compared the average standing of each group in each trait will be
used for drawing profiles in the same graph sheet to have an easy visual comparison.
A personality inventory (self – appraisal) is administered and
the individual is assessed in each of the traits. The score in each
trait is plotted in a graph sheet. The plotted points are joined by
means of line segments. ( a zig zig line) . The intra difference, of
an individual as well the inter difference between two groups
(boys and girls ‘ Gender differences) may be studied for
comparison or contrast.
The Social - Cognitive Perspective
A modern personality perspective - the social - cognitive
perspective - proposed by Bandura emphasizes the interaction of
persons and their situations. We learn most of behaviours either
through conditioning or by observing others and modelling our
behaviours. According to Bandura, “Behaviour, Internal Personal
factors and Environmental influences all operate as interlocking
determinants of each other” (reciprocal determinism). Behaviour
emerges from the interplay of external and internal influences.
Our behaviour is influenced by our genes, our experiences and our
personalities.
Social - cognitive psychologists emphasize our sense of
personal control - our sense of controlling our environment rather
than feeling helpless. External locus of control refers to the
perception that chance or outside force beyond one’s personal
control determines one’s fate. Internal locus of control refers to
the perception that one controls one’s own fate. Research studies
reveal that internals are more successful than externals. Self -
control of internals - the ability to control impulses and delay
gratification - in turn predicts good adjustment and social success.
The social cognitive perspective is the modern approach to person
situation controversy on Personality.
Some of the person variables that influence behaviour, in
interaction with environment conditions, are :
- Competencies (intellectual abilities, social skills,
physical skills and other special abilites)
- Cognitive strategies (habitual ways of selectively
attending to information and organising it into
meaningful categories)
- Expectancies - (expectations about consequences of
different behaviours)
- Subjective - outcome values - (the values one places on the expected out comes)
- Self - regulatory systems and plans - (self - imposed
standards and rules)
Social learning theory
Social learning theory focusses not on internal drives, but
on patterns of behaviours the individual learns in coping with
environment. The emphasis is on the reciprocal interaction
between behaviour and environment. We are neither driven by
internal forces nor are we passive reactors to external stimulation.
The type of behaviour one exhibits partly determines the reward
(social approval) or punishment (social disapproval) we receive
and these influence our behaviour.
Social learning theory stresses the importance of cognitive
processes (thinking and reasoning), vicarious learning (learning by
observation) and self - regulatory processes. A specific behaviour
produces an external outcome and also self - evaluative reaction.
Reinforcement has two sources : external and self - evaluative.
Sometimes they coincide and sometimes they are contradictory.
Individuals are not simply passive reactors to situational
conditions; our behaviour influences the situations of life as well as
it is being influenced by them; the relationship is reciprocal. Trait
theory and social learning theory are not contradictory but complementary.
Integration of Personality
Integration of personality is a harmonious balance between
the individual's desires and aspirations on the one hand and his
potentials on the other (one must desire what one deserves). The
marks of an integrated personality are balance and adjustment to
environment. Balance refers to interharmony. Another way of
looking at integration of personality will be to find whether there is
optimum development in each of the three domains of human
behaviour – cognition, psychomotor and affection of an individual.
The development of one and utter neglect of other domains will result in disintegration of personality; there should be uniform and
optimum development in each of the three domains.
School influences the development of personality of the
child to a large extent through peer group influences, curriculum,
system of examination and the teacher's personality. Home
climate, peer group climate, classroom climate, school climate and
social climate, in general, exert powerful influences (directly or
indirectly) to help an individual achieve an integrated personality.
Integration of personality leads to success in life.
Trait theories assume that personality is consistent so that
a person can be characterized to enduring traits. Social learning
theory regards the situations as an important determinant of
behaviour. A person’s actions in a given situation depend upon the
specific characteristics of the situation, and past reinforcement for
behaviour in similar situation.
Individuals are not simply passive reactors to situational
conditions; our behaviour influences the situations of life as well as it is being influenced by them; the relationship is reciprocal. Trait theory and social learning theory are not contradictory but complementary.
INTERESTS, VALUES AND ATTITUDES
Content outline: Interests – Inventories – Kuder, Strong –
values – norms – Allport – Vernon's values – Attitudes – opinions – Prejudice – Development of Attitudes – Role of Home, School, Society – Attitude scales – Thurstone's scaled values – Likert's summated ratings – Dispositions and sentiments – Sentiment of self-esteem – Image.
Interests
Interests are tendencies of the individual to seek out and
participate in certain activities. Interest operates at two levels. At
the first level it is only expressed or potential. At the second level
it is manifest or functional. An individual's aptitudes and abilities
are not so highly specific that he can be given guidance solely on
the basis of aptitude and general mental ability. Motivation,
influenced by one's interests, values and preferences – in addition
to aptitude and abilities can determine the selection of a course of
study or an occupation.
Evaluative instruments employed to study and interpret
interests are called interest inventories.
The KUDER inventories: These are designed for the use
from grade 9 onwards and with adults in the form of preference
records (KPR). Three preferences are indicated: vocational,
occupational, personal.
- Vocational: Outdoor, mechanical, computational, scientific,
persuasive, artistic, literacy, musical, social service and
clerical.
- Occupational: farmer, newspaper editor, physician,
minister, mechanical engineer, consulting
psychologist,architect, retail clotheir. Personal: five broad characteristics of behaviour regarded
as significant for certain types or groups of vocations are
studied through a personality inventory – being active in
groups, familiar and stable in situations, working with
ideas, avoiding conflict, directing others.
The items in the three preference records are of forced
choice variety. Each item consists of three statements from which
the subject selects one he likes most and the one he likes least.
Example:
Collect Autograph Exercise in a gymnasium
Collect Coins Go fishing
Collect Butterflies Play Baseball
The Strong Inventories
The strong vocational interest blank (SVIB) is available in
separate forms for men and women from age 17 onwards. Each
inventory contains 400 items dealing with likes and dislikes in
occupations, school subjects, amusements, activities, personality
traits; with order of preference of activities, importance of factors
affecting one's work, positions one would like most and least to
hold in an organization.
The purpose of the inventory is to find the extent to which
an individual's interests and preferences agree with those of
successful persons in specified occupations. This is called criterion
keying.
SCII (Strong Campbell Interest Inventory) was a later
revision of SVIB.
There have been several revisions of KPR and SVIB. These
two inventories have been the major frames of reference for
researchers in „Interests‟ who improved, modified, refined and
revised them. Departments of Education and Psychology in Indian Universities have been employing KPR, SVIB, SCII and their
revisions for their research projects (with suitable modifications for
Indian social and cultural conditions).
Values
Values refer to abstract or covert societal definitions of
what is wanted, what is best and what is desirable. Values have a
goal orienting factor. Values refer to the criteria in terms of which
choices are made between alternative courses of action. Values
imply a ranking of ideal choices to be made in order to attain the
goals.
Norms refer to overt societal definition of behaviours that
one should do, ought to do, and is expected to do under given
circumstances. Norms identify the overt behaviour models that
society or societal groups accept as appropriate means for
achieving some identifiable end (goal or value).
The major objective of schooling is to socialise the child.
An individual will be considered to be socialized only when he
absorbs the social values and norms. Basic human values are to be
cultivated in the child as deliberate as well as concomitant
learning. Mere academic achievement is not adequate. Unless the
child learns to cherish and practise values it will not be a success in
society. Social heritage and cultural heritage imply that the student
population imbibes the values and norms of the society. The
current trend, 'value education' (education of the 'Heart') is an attempt in this direction.
Allport – Vernon Values
Allport and Vernon identified six fundamental life areas of
interest indicating six major types of values of life: Theoretical,
Economic, Aesthetic, Social, Political, Religious.
Theoretical value refers to interest in determining truths,
intellectual pursuits, academic pursuits, research (philosopher, scientist. Scholar).
Economic value refers to interest in what is useful, down to
earth, practical or pragmatic.
- Aesthetic value refers to interest in finer
aspects of life – music, art, painting, writing and the like.
- Social value refers to interest in people, love
of people, serving the suffering humanity, championing the
causes of the downtrodden, exploited.
- Political value refers to interest in exercising
power over others; bossing others, controlling others,
managing others.
- Religious value refers to interest in the
comprehension of human life in the light of religious,
ethical or moral implications.
Psychologists have been employing Allport-Vernon
typology to indicate interest areas, value types or even personality
types. Profiles are also drawn for easy visual comparison of one's
standing in one area with one's in other areas.
Attitudes
Attitude is an inner-state rather than an overt expression. It
is basically a tendency to act. It is mental set or readiness to act. It
is an implicit response towards or away from an individual value
or social value. It is rated usually on a five point scale (very
favourable, favourable, indifferent (neutral), unfavourable,
strongly unfavourable).
Attitudes cannot be studied directly. In attitude scales we
normally elicit opinions. Opinion is the verbal expression of an
attitude. Attitudes have deep seated roots, are integral aspects of
the personality and are both causes and effects of behaviour.
Attitudes have both feeling and ideational content and tend to cause behaviour with those feelings and thoughts. A prejudice is an attitude (generally one of opposition) that is not supported by sound evidence. An opinion is an estimate or point of view based on knowledge.
Attitudes develop in a number of ways:
- from the attitudes expressed in the home, school,
peer group and other places.
- From the ideas, facts and attitudes expressed in
books, journals, magazines, radio, TV and movies.
- From the experience in terms of how pleasant or
unpleasant they are.
- From a person's status in relation to others; his
personal relativity.
- From self or ego-involvement.
The school has the responsibility of developing in the
students good (positive and favourable) attitude towards others,
towards self, towards learning, and in general towards desirable
values. Attitude towards school subjects is developed largely by
success or failure in those subjects. Attitude of the student towards
his parents, teachers influence the forming of attitudes towards
school subjects.
The effects of education on attitudes of any given person
are difficult to predict. The reasons for this are found in the
teacher, the learner himself and the many facets of the environment
that influence the learner.
Education seems to have the effect of developing mature
attitudes and of reducing prejudice.
The teacher probably has the best influence on the attitude
development of his students; if he is personally likeable and
professionally competent, and if he observes problem-solving
procedures and helps the students seek out evidence.
Understanding the attitudes of the student helps the teacher understand their behaviour.
The teacher who maintains discipline in the modern sense keeps his students busy with their learning activities and thereby
prevents disorder and wastage of time and energy. However
discipline in this sense usually will not be of much help to those
relatively few students who have deep seated personality problems.
Positive, efficient teaching is the best defence. Good teachers tend
to be generous with their appreciation and praise, like
their students, are liked by them and have intellectual interests.
Effective teachers bring about discipline in a democratic
and co-operative atmosphere and help their students in learning to
initiate and sustain desirable individual and group behaviour.
The attitude of the teacher – positive or negative, sceptical
or cynical, optimistic or pessimistic will influence the students directly or indirectly.
Attitude Scale
The information form that attempts to measure the attitude
or belief of an individual is known as an attitude scale or
opinionnaire. Opinion and attitude are not synonymous. How an
individual feels or what he believes is his attitude. But it is
difficultto describe and measure attitude. The investigator must
depend upon what the individual says as his belief and feelings.
This is the area of opinion. (Opinion is the verbal expression of an
attitude.) Through the use of questions, or by getting an individual
express reaction to statements, a sample of his opinion is obtained.
From this statement of opinion may be inferred or estimated his
attitude
– what he really believes.
The process of inferring attitude from expressed opinion
has many limitations:
- An individual may conceal his real attitude and
express socially acceptable opinion.
- An individual may not really know how he feels
about a social issue; he may never have given a serious
consideration.
An individual may not be able to know his attitude
about a situation in the abstract.
- Until confronted with a real situation he may be
unable to predict his reaction or behaviour.
Even behaviour itself is not always true indication of
attitude. Often we exhibit socially approved behaviour though our
attitude is against it. Social custom or the desire for social approval
make many overt expressions of behaviour mere formalities, quite
unrelated to the inward feelings of the individual.
Methods
- Asking individual directly how he feels about the subject
– a schedule or questionnaire of the open or closed form – interview.
- Asking the individual to check the statement in a list
with which he is in agreement.
- Asking the individual to indicate his degree of
agreement or disagreement with a series of statements.
- Inferring his attitude from his reaction to projective
devices, through which he may reveal his attitude
unconsciously.
Thurstone's Technique of Scaled Values
Twenty or more statements are collected on a specific subject
towards which attitude is to be studied. Statements are scrutinised so
that each of them consists of a single thought or idea. These
statements are placed before a panel of judges/experts. They classify
these statements into 11 groups ranging from one extreme (most
favourable) to the other extreme (most unfavourable). Items where
there is marked disagreement are discarded. Items that are retained are given median scale value between 11 and 1 (or between +5 and -5) as established by the level.
The list is placed before the subjects and they are asked to place a tick mark against statements with which they agree. The median values of these statements are added and the aggregate indicates one's score in the attitude scale. Higher the score, more positive the attitude.
Dispositions and Sentiments
When attitudes are mild and operate with a lower potency,
they are a called dispositions (positively disposed, neutrally
disposed or negatively disposed). In such a state attitudes are mild,
passive (not active or vigorous). When attitudes are given an emotional colouring they become sentiments. Sentiments are complex. They differ from physical needs; they emerge in social interaction; they are learned, not innate. Unlike attitudes which are subject to change, sentiments are powerful foci of concern for the individual and may last for a lifetime. Sentiments, being
emotionally coloured, cannot be changed by reasoning in most cases. Superstitions are sentimental extensions of certain beliefs.
Positive productive sentiments may be encouraged and developed (e.g. patriotism) negative, unproductive sentiments must be discouraged and disapproved (eg. Religious fanaticism).
Sentiment of Self-esteem
The integrating sentiment in all normal people is the
sentiment of self-regard or self esteem. This sentiment gives rise to
the manner in which an individual responds to the image* held of
him by others. Self-esteem is present in the personality make up of
every individual.
A sentiment extends beyond itself to include all those values
important to the individual – family, nation, profession, friends. Whatever
the person values as being part of himself will be loved, protected, and
defended for in these attitudes the person is, in fact, defending himself.
* Abraham Cooley on “Image”:;
“ I am not what I think I am;
I am not what you think I am;
I am what I think you think I am”
MENTAL HEALTH
Content outline: Mental Health – Meaning and Definition – Indicators – Mental hygiene – Factors which affect mental health – Stress, Frustration, conflict – Problem solving attitude – Coping and defensive behaviour – Defence mechanisms – Educational implications – Towards sound mental health.
A more appropriate term for this concept is 'Emotional
Health' since 'mental' refers to 'intellectual' (intelligence is known
as the general mental ability). Mental health refers to personal
happiness and satisfaction with one's work and achievement. Major
indicators of mental health are emotional balance, intrinsic
motivation, adjustment, sense of humour, healthy interpersonal relations and a life mission.
Mental health is a process of living that points to better
living. It is not passive acceptance of life and its conditions; it is
not just efficiency or contentment, or complacent abiding by rules.
It means an even temper, functional intelligence and consideration
of the social order. Reality is accepted. Problems are solved when
solvable and lived with when unsolved or unsolvable. Mental
health, like physical health, is a matter of degree.
A person in sound mental health, is relatively free from
symptoms of maladjustment. Mental health is preserved in a
friendly and sympathetic atmosphere, by not being overprotected,
by developing efficiency through good habits and by having a well
balanced programme of work and rest; mental health is the
complete harmonious functioning of one's personality.
Mental Hygiene
Mental health does not only mean the absence of indicators
of mental ill-health but the absence of proneness to them as well.
Mental hygiene is the science of dealing with the preservation of mental health; it has a two fold function – prevention and cure.
Mental hygiene stresses good living conditions that will not
only cure mental ill- health but prevent the onset of mental illness;
it is a science which deals with human welfare and pervades all
fields of human relationships. It is the art of living according to the
sound principles of psychology and philosophy. The objective of
mental hygiene is to help people in the realization of a fuller,
happier, more harmonious and more effective life.
Factors which affect Mental Health
Factors which affect mental health or which cause mental
illhealth are stress, frustration and conflict.
Stress
Stress refers to a situation when the person is being
attacked by several problems simultaneously.
P is the person and arrows directed towards him are the
problems. These problems may be real or imaginary. The
individual must identify his real problems and must start attacking
them one by one in order to priority – in order of intensity.
Frustration
When the attempt of an individual to reach a goal is
blocked he is frustrated.
The ellipse indicates the psychological field of a person
where several psychological forces operate. The dot P refers to the individual. G refers to a goal. '+' implies attraction and '_ ' implies repulsion. Since the goal attracts the individual moves towards the goal (the arrow indicates his movement). The individual may reach his goal if there are no barriers. The individual may not reach his goal if there is a barrier (line segment B) or if there are barriers.
In a frustrating situation, there are three possible modes of behaviour – surmounting the barrier, circumventing the barrier,goal substitution.
Surmounting the barrier implies piercing through the
barrier and reaching the goal. Instead of 'going to pieces'
(emotional breakdown) the individual makes the barrier go to
pieces and reaches the goal. This is a fair play. Some individuals
avoid the barrier take a roundabout route and reach their goals.
This is what is called circumventing the barrier. This is not a fair
play; it is a foul play (also called backdoor entry). If the goal is
beyond one's reach (if one is not competent enough to reach the
goal) one can substitute this goal by another one which he can
reach without a barrier. This is called goal substitution. To avoid
frustration choose reachable goals.
The sources of frustration are environmental obstacles that
prevent the attainment of goal or personal inadequacies or
handicaps that make the goal unattainable or both.
The ability to stand to any frustration is called frustration tolerance.
Conflict
Conflict refers to a situation when there is a clash
between two motives. Conflicts assume serious proportions only when strong motives are involved. There are three types of conflict: Approach – Approach conflict, Avoidance – Avoidance conflict, Approach – avoidance conflict.
Approach – Approach conflict refers to a situation where the individual is flanked by two equally attractive goals/stimuli. The individual feels like approaching both but he cannot approach both; he can approach only one and that is the problem. What is required is a quick decision before it is too late. The legendary ass, flanked by two equally enticing and equidistant bales of hay, was said to have starved to death because it was not in a position to take a decision.
Avoidance – Avoidance conflict is the exact opposite of the
previous type. The individual is caught between two negative goals
/ situations / motives. He wants to avoid both; but he cannot avoid both; he
can avoid only one and that is the problem. – 'between the devil and the
deep blue sea'. Two modes of behaviour are likely; one is vacillation;
another is an attempt to leave the field. Escape from the field does not solve
the problem; does not resolve the conflict; it is likely to aggravate it. Approach – Avoidance conflict: An individual is simultaneously attracted and repelled by a single goal. The goal has plus points which attract him and minus points which repel him. He must take a decision whether to approach or to avoid (Hamlet's 'To be or not be').
Multiple Approach – Avoidance Conflicts
Often we are confronted with several possibilities for action – each having desirable and undesirable aspects.
Whether it is stress, frustration on conflict, the individual
must develop a problem solving attitude. The best way to stop
worrying about a problem is to solve it.
- identify and define the problem (Try to specify or
pin point the problem; find out where exactly the shoe pinches).
- Analyse the problem (what are the causes of the
problem? How to deal with them? What are the different
solutions? Which solution is the most feasible one, right now?)
Make a deliberate attempt to solve the problem. If you are
not able to solve the problem, seek others' help (others – your well
wishers; resourceful people) and solve the problem. If the problem
remains unsolved even after your best efforts and the best efforts
of your wellwishers try to learn how to pull on with the problem as
an unsolved one. This type of behaviour is what is called coping
behaviour or coping strategy (Taking the bull by the horns). There
is also another type of behaviour – the exact opposite of coping. In
this type of behaviour, the individuals, when not in a position to
solve problems, do not make any serious attempt nor do they try
their best, nor do they seek others' help since they feel it is infradig
(below their dignity) to admit their inability to solve problems and
seek others' help. Such individuals exhibit a behaviour called
defensive behaviour or defensive strategy. Defensive behaviour is
manifest in indirect reactions called 'ego-defences' or defence
mechanisms. These modes of behaviour are also called mental mechanisms, mental dynamisms, adjustment mechanisms or escape mechanisms. Defence mechanisms are indirect reactions of the individuals who cannot solve problems. Defence mechanisms are unconscious and self-deceptive.
. Some major defence mechanisms are outlined here:
Daydreaming or Fantasy
Human beings gradually start building an imaginary dream
world as opposed to the real world. Whenever the individual is a
failure or does not achieve a goal in the real world he spontaneously
(unconsciously) goes to his dream world and achieves success by
reaching his goal. Occasional excursion to the dream world does not
do any harm to our mental health. One can fly to his dream world
once in a blue moon and warm oneself in some pleasant fantasy; but
one should come back to the real world. If an individual overstays in
the dream world ( a habitual retreat ) he becomes a misfit in the real world.
Compensation:
In compensation, deficiency in one field is compensated in another.
Here is a boy who is weak in English. He struggles to get even the
minimum required for a pass; fortunately he has mathematical aptitude to a
high degree. He works with a vengeance and scores centum or near centum
in Mathematics. It is a case of positive compensation. Though he has
compensated, his low achievement in English remains It is not a problem
solving technique. It is only a face saving technique. A boy who is weak
academically will try to compensate by taking to sports and games if he has
athletic aptitude. This is also a case of positive compensation. There are
also cases of negative compensation. Some of us are haughty, arrogant,
assuming, inaccessible, unapproachable. They maintain distance with
others. Such people are usually half baked, less efficient, inadequate.
Competent people are usually unassuming people. Great scholars,
Scientists, High achievers , Social leaders are usually unassuming.
Incompetent people, by putting on airs, try to cover their inefficiency. This is unconscious and self deceptive. There are also cases of overcompensation. People work hard with industry and diligence and turn their deficiency into proficiency. Demosthenes, (a famous orator), Caesar, Helen Keller, Hitler, Napolean were outstanding examples.
Rationalization:
It refers to a behaviour of giving feasible false excuses for not
performing an activity. This is unconscious and is different from lying
which is conscious. When you tell a lie you do not believe in what you say
(since you know it is a lie). When you rationalise you believe in what you
say. It is very difficult to convince you that you are lying. A gifted student
gets a low score in a monthly test since he has not prepared for it
adequately or he has been absent for the class for a long time. He does not
admit the real cause but says that the teacher is partial, does not like him
and has deliberately reduced his marks. He believes in what he says. He
rationalizes. There are two types of distortion in rationalization-
sourgrapism and sweet lemonism. A brilliant unemployed post- graduate
applies for jobs. He also appears for IAS examination. He is not selected.
Now he says, 'IAS post is not a good one, always under pressure, and IAS
officers are not happy. It is good I am not selected” it is case of
sourgrapism. He gets a job in a college as a teacher. Now he says, 'of all the
jobs college teachership is the best one'. It is case of sweet-lemonism. An
utterance of sour grapism is usually followed by one of sweet lemonism.
Identification:
Individuals who are not high achievers identify themselves with
high achievers known to them. This is the process of enhancing one's
feeling of personal worth. This process starts early in life-right from
childhood. Low achievers and Mediocre achievers unconsciously identify
themselves with high achievers in the field, try to make friends with them,
try to be in their company, and see that their association with high achievers
is noticed by others. They bask in others' glory; it is a kind of compensation.
Projection:
In projection the individual tries to attribute his own motives to others. A is angry with B; when A meets B he (A) asks him (B),
'why are angry with me?”. Individuals also attribute their hostile motives to others. It is a defensive behaviour when all the negative motives of one are attributed to others.
Displacement:
When an individual cannot openly show negative reactions
to one he displaces them to others who are submissive, obedient
and helpless. An officer shouts at his subordinate in a fit of rage.
The poor subordinate cannot shout back by way of retaliation.
When he goes home he shouts at his wife without any valid reason.
His wife shouts at her children and the children break their toys in a fit of anger.
Regression:
Going back to earlier stages of behaviour is regression.
Some frustrated individuals resort to behaviour that are immature.
Crying, weeping, making faces, creating a scene, tempertantrums
and such other infantile behaviours after certain age indicate
regressive behaviour. Individuals who exhibit such a behaviour operate in the 'child ego state' (Eric Berne).
Repression:
Suppression is conscious; repression is unconscious.
Repression is a basic unconscious activity in Freudean theory of
personality. It is the attempt of the individual to push into the
unconscious mind those experiences and thoughts that are in
conflict with social norms of behaviour (ethical code of conduct).
Such repressed wishes and thoughts surface occasionally and
disturb the mental health of the individuals; they are the root
causes of dreams. Dream analysis is one way of identifying and
dealing with such repressed wishes and thoughts.
Negativism:
The individual resents strongly to the suggestions of others
- almost all suggestions without weighing their merits and
limitations. Some individuals react negatively to all social or
individual stimuli almost unconsciously. This is partly a
compensatory behaviour to gain self importance, to draw others'attention and to boost their self-image.
Conversion:
The psychological maladjustment is unconsciously
converted into physiological maladjustment. Low achievers under
pressure for a minimum score required for a pass and high
achievers under pressure for a top rank are likely to suffer from
examination fever at the advent of examination if they become oveanxious.
Educational Implications:
Successful and happy life is the ultimate objective of any
individual. Mental health is the basic requirement for success and
happiness in life. Home, school and society must help children
develop sound mental health. Schools play a vital role in this
process. Through the meetings of parent-teacher association
schools can offer guidelines to parents how a conducive home
climate can promote mental health of children. Such meetings can
also outline society's responsibility in promoting mental health of
its members, especially children. If parents love their children and
provide them opportunities to meet their legitimate needs home
climate is likely to be conducive for optimum development of their
children. Positive feelings and emotions can be taught to children
by parents more by practice than by instruction. The interpersonal
relations among the siblings at home also determine their mental
health. School can effectively interact with parents and suggest
measures of promoting home climate – general as well as specific.
School counsellors can have sittings with parents and children to
arrive at a working formula for promoting home climate – the general emotional climate at home.
Community outside the school campus should also help
promote a conducive climate for maintenance of sound mental
health of its members especially children. Schools through their extension services can educate the community through its leaders on the necessity of social health or community health – its maintenance and promotion. Functions and cultural activities
organised and conducted in schools can remind the community of
its rich cultural heritage, social norms and values. A society with
rich cultural and social norms and values can promote general
social health and , in turn, mental health of its members especially
young school going children.
There is no separate curriculum for improvement of mental
health of children. Much depends upon the campus climate,
classroom climate and the teacher. Teacher must have sound
mental health. Teacher's mental health is not only a personal
necessity but a professional responsibility as well. If a head of a
family is mentally ill, the family is ruined. If a head of a class
(teacher) is mentally ill, the class is ruined. Teacher, incidentally
(unintentionally), teach their students their own philosophy of life
through their reactions, points of view and remarks expressed
while teaching in the class. Young children who take their teachers
as role models are likely to subscribe to their philosophy of life.
Teachers must have a nice temperament and positive altitude
towards their subjects and students. They must maintain a
conducive classroom climate. They must have faith in basic human
values and teach their students these values by practice. They must
identify students with mental health problems and direct them to
the school counsellor.
School counsellors must approach children with mental
health problems with sympathy and empathy. They must have a
series of sittings with such children. They must help children
develop a problem solving attitude. Children must be taught how
to avoid stress and how to deal with it if unavoidable; how to
choose reachable goals to avoid frustration, how to set goals based
on their aptitude and interest and how to reach these goals in a phased manner; how to set sequential goals for their entire life based on their capacities and aspiration; how to identify
approaching conflicts and how to resolve them; how to attain interharmony and intraharmony; how to cherish and practise basic
human values; how to develop a sound theory of life and thereby
learn and practise the art of living.
Teachers, in general, and counsellors in particular, should
possess sound mental health. A mentally unhealthy person cannot
cultivate mental health in others. Here is a list of guidelines for
teachers to maintain and promote their mental health:
- Accept yourself (your strengths and weaknesses) don't
compare yourself with others; it may result either in self-
boosting or self-negation; accepting oneself will result in
intraharmony (adjustment).
- Accept others (their strengths and weaknesses)
- Make the best use of their strengths and develop strategies
of dealing with their weaknesses; accepting others will
result in inter harmony.
- Work towards self-enrichment.
- Work towards job enrichment
- Identify sources of unhappiness and job dissatisfaction and
develop strategies of dealing with them.
- Identify sources of happiness and job satisfaction and make
the best use of them.
- Recognize new possibilities in teaching and deliberately
expose yourself to new experiences.
- Talk it over with friends (emotional release of tension)
- Get physical release of tension
- Get professional help if need be
- Develop scientific approach to problem solving
- Develop a positive philosophy of life and art of living.
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