Programme Instruction in Educational technology| Types of programme Instruction

 Programme Instruction

Types of programme Instruction 

Educational technology 

Programme Instruction 

PROGRAMME INSTRUCTION

Programmed learning/instruction is a revolutionary strategy pertaining to the art and science of the teaching-learning process. In our country there have been attempts for the use of programmed instructions especially in providing materials to the students of correspondence courses. Suitable self-instructional programmed materials for different subjects and grades have been prepared and it is being used for instructional

and self-instructional purposes. Besides, its use for instructional purpose, programmed instruction has full potentiality for being used as a mechanism of feedback-device for the modification of teacher behaviour and improving teaching efficiency.

It nevertheless provides insight into the problem of teaching effectiveness through improved feedback and reinforcement mechanism. Programmed learning is

an educational innovation and auto-instructional device. It is a practice of breaking down a body of subject-matter into its constituent elements and requiring the pupil to

master one step before proceeding to the next. It allows for more pupil involvement in the learning process. As it is a self-instructional device, it is mostly individualized

being adapted to individual differences. In this technique, learning is more rapid as well as interesting. It is directed towards specific objective and retained better as well as longer.

Origin of Programmed Instruction

Modern programmed instruction originated from the psychology of learning and not from technology. It is an application of the Conditioning theory to teaching learning process. It got a momentum only after the publication of B.F. Skinner’s The science of learning and art of teaching in 1954.

Programmed instruction, in an advanced form of teaching machine, was initiated by Prof. Sidney L. Pressey.

Meaning and Definition of Programmed Instruction

Programmed instruction can be defined as a teaching method where individualized instructions are provided to students. In this method, the students are provided with immediate result. The physical presence of teacher is not essential in this strategy.

According to Susan Markle, ‘It is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of

instructional events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on behaviour of each and every acceptable student.’

Thus, programmed learning is a strategy in which various kinds of intellectual,

emotional and motor experiences are provided to the learner, in a controlled situation,

through a variety of devices like a book, teaching machine, teacher, radio and television.

Definitions by Experts

W. I. Smith and J. W. Moore, editors of the book Programmed Learning: Theory

and Research, define programmed instruction as, ‘Programmed instruction can be

defined as the process of arranging the material to be learned into a series of

sequential steps. Usually it moves the students from a familiar background into a complex and new set of concept, principles and understanding.’

Walter Barnard who contributed to the book Guidance in the Classroom,

defines it as, ‘Programmed learning refers to the arrangement of instructional material in progressive sequences.’

Behaviourist B. F. Skinner defines it as, ‘Programmed learning is the first

application of laboratory technique utilized in the study of the learning process to the practical problems of education.’

G. O. M Leith author of Handbook of Programmed Learning, defines it as,

‘A programme is a sequence of small steps of instructional material (called frames),

most of which requires a response to be made by completing a blank space in a

sentence. To ensure the required responses we given, a system of cueing is applied,

and each response is verified by the provision of immediate knowledge of results.

Such a sequence is intended to be worked at the learners own pace as individualized self instruction.’

Wilbur Schramm, author of Programmed Instruction, defines as, ‘By programmed

instruction, it means the kind of learning experiences in which a programme takes

the place of a tutor for the student and leads him through a set of behaviour, designed in sequences to make it more probable that he behaves in a given desired way in the

future. In other words, he will learn what the programmes designed to teach him.’

Assumptions of Programmed Instruction

Programmed instruction assumes that a student learns better under the following situation:

 By being active

 If he is motivated to learn by confirming his responses

 If the content-matter is presented in small steps

 If he commits minimum errors in his learning

 If the sequence of content is psychological

 If the pre-requisites are specified on the part of the learner

Objectives of Programmed Instruction

The objectives of programmed instruction are:

 To help student to learn by himself

 To provide a situation to learn at his own pace

 To help student to learn without the presence of a teacher

 To present the content in a controlled manner and in logically sequenced steps

 To assess his own performance by comparing it with the given answer

Characteristics of Programmed Instruction

The characteristics of programmed instruction are:

 It is not an audio-visual device. It is a part of education technology, i.e., instructional technology.

 It is not a test but a new strategy for teaching and learning.

 It is not the solution of educational problems but a new instructional strategy

for the modification to behaviours of the learners.

 It cannot replace the teacher from the field of teaching but an effective teacher can prepare a good programme.

 It requires more creativity and imaginative efforts to develop highly individualized instruction.

5.4.1 Steps for Development of Programmed Instruction

The steps for development of programmed instruction are:

 Selection of the topic to be programmed

 Identifying the objectives

 Content analysis for developing the instructional procedure

 Writing objectives (Entering and Terminal) in behavioural terms Construction of criterion test

 Deciding appropriate paradigm and strategy of programme

 Writing programme frames

 Revising and editing the programme and preparing the final draft

 Master validation or evaluation of the programme in terms of internal and external criteria

 Preparation of a manual of the programme 

Topic selection

The programmer should select the most familiar topic; otherwise he has to take the

help of a subject expert. He may confine himself to selecting a specified content or a small area of the subject matter.

Content outlines

After topic selection, its outlines may be prepared which should cover all the materials

one plans to teach. For this the programme has to refer to and examine relevant books and materials.

Instructional objectives

The instructional objective must be formulated which involves both test descriptions

and task analysis. The former is the description of terminal behaviour which the

learner is expected to achieve and the latter is the series of component behaviour

that is required to acquire in the process of achieving terminal behaviour. The

instructional objectives should be written in behavioural outcomes.

Entry skill

The learner should have some prerequisite ability and skill to understand properly

the new programme. This background experience is called the entry skill, and a

suitable programme cannot be prepared without proper assessment of the entry

skill. To prepare a programme adequately, target-oriented entry skill data should be utilized at this stage.

Presentation of the material

Suitable format is to be decided for presenting the material from the educational

point of view. Then the programmed material should be presented in a sequence of

frames arranged as steps towards terminal behaviour.

Student participation

On analysis of the terminal behaviour, he will find the critical responses of the students.

Of course, it is related to some part of the subject-matter. The overt responses

facilitates student learning. Students’ participation is facilitated by presenting the programme in an interesting format.

Terminal behaviour test

The effect of the programme can be ascertained by administering the terminal

behaviour test, also known as performance assessment. This provides feedback to

the programme and shows the effectiveness of the instructional materials. It may

also serve as an entry skill data for the next programme on a related topic of higher levels.

Revision

Lastly, the programme may be reviewed on the basis of feedback. The instructional

materials may be edited and modified according to the needs and requirements of the target audience.

The procedure of programmed instruction provides a deep insight and

understanding of the elements, structure and their sequence. During teaching practice,

the pupil-teachers are asked to teach a lesson by following the traditional approach

of lesson planning. The classroom teaching is recorded or evaluated. Now they are asked to develop the programmed instruction frames on the same topic and asked to

re-teach the same topic to another class of the same level. The same criterion measure should be used to record and evaluate classroom teaching. Experimental

studies of this type have yielded significant improvement in teaching. The preparation

of the programmed frames provides awareness about the content, structure and

function as feedback to the trainee. The following skills are developed by the training of the programmed instruction:

 The pupil-teachers skills of content analysis and arranging content in learning sequence.

 The pupil-teachers skill to present the content into small steps.

 The pupil-teachers skill to provide the reinforcement to learn by confirming their responses.

 The pupil-teachers skill to develop the situation for achieving the desired learning objectives.

 The trainees skill to consider the individual variation and generate the learning

situation that they can learn according to their own pace.

 The pupil-teachers skill to identify the objectives and are able to write them in behavioural term.

5.4.2 Fundamental Principles

A good programmed instruction is based upon the principles of learning. The principles,

on which programmed instruction is based, are discovered in psychological

laboratories. There are five fundamental principles of programmed instruction. They are as follows:

(i) Principle of small steps

The subject matter is broken down into a sequence of small steps. A student can take a step at a time. He has to read a small step by being active. This small part of the information is known as a frame.

(ii) Principle of active responding

Programmed instruction is based on the principle of active response. A student learns better if he actively participates in the learning process and he learns best if he actively responds while learning.

(iii)Principle of immediate confirmation

Students learn better if their answers are confirmed immediately. Therefore,immediate confirmation serves as a kind of motivation or reinforcement.

(iv) Principle of self-pacing

In programmed instruction, each student proceeds at his own pace. It is common knowledge that some students naturally learn more rapidly or more stoutly than others. One learns most effectively if he learns in his own pace. In programming,

each student can work each step as slowly or as quickly as he can. This principle is based on individual differences in the process of teaching. This is known as principle of self-pacing.

(v) Principle of student-testing

Constant evaluation is yet another fundamental principle of programmed instruction.

It helps students to learn and grasp the material given in each frame. The aim of this

arrangement is not to test the student but to improve the quality of programmed

materials through checking the number of errors at each step. A student leaves the

record of his study because he has to write a response for each step on a response sheet.

TYPES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

Programmed instruction can be of the following types:

(i) Linear Programming

Linear programming was developed by B. F. Skinner and is considered one of the

most important types of programmed learning. Its basis is psychology. Linear

programming is also known as extrinsic programming. This method presents stimulus-

response bond. In this type of programmed learning, the questions are directly asked

to the pupils. Then, they are instructed to think and write answers to those questions.

Such types of responses are known as ‘constructed response’.

Linear programming is a programme designed in a straight line in which the pupil

starts from his initial behaviour to the terminal behaviour following a straight line. In this

way the pupil moves from one frame to the other frames till he completes the entire programme. The subject matter is broken into various small units which are arranged in a proper sequence. Immediate feedback is provided to the pupil. A bit of information is given in each frame and this programming is also known as skinnerian programming.

Characteristics of Linear Programming

The characteristics of linear programming are:

 It is called a linear programme because there is only one way or line to follow.

 A student goes from one frame to the other till the entire programme is over.

 In the linear programming, constructive (fill-in the blanks) responses are mostly used.

 Students are provided with stimulus or signals at the initial stage of the programme.

 The entire programme consists of many smaller frames and each frame contains a single idea, example or rule.

Limitations of Linear Programming

The limitations of linear programming are:

 It is a very costly method and consumes a lot of time.

 In this method, the freedom of the pupil is restricted.

 This method is helpful in providing knowledge related to the lower level of the cognitive domain, e.g. knowledge of some facts.

 It is a difficult job to produce a programmed material of higher level.

 It is not helpful in producing material for all the school subjects.

(ii) Branching Programming

Branching programming is also known as the Crowderian programming. It can be defined as: ‘A programme which adapts to the needs of the students without the

medium of extrinsic device as a computer. It is also known as intrinsic programming as the learner himself makes the decision to adapt the instructions to his/her needs.’

In comparison to linear programming, the frame size and amount of information

given is more and is followed by multiple choice types of questions. If the learner chooses the correct answer, he is informed of the correctness of the answer and is

motivated to proceed to the next frame along the main path of learning of the programme. If the answer is wrong the learner is told why he/she is wrong and he/

she either goes back to the main line or he/she is routed back to the original frame to reread along a remedial frame till he chooses the right answer. In branching

programming, frames are presented in book form, it is known as ‘scrambled book.’

Characteristics of Branching Programming

The characteristics of branching programming are:

 The pupils are free for their responses. They can select any answer out of the multiple alternatives and move towards next frame on the basis of that response.

 There is a provision of remedial instruction for the errors committed by the pupils.

 In such type of programming there is much emphasis on paying attention towards the difficulties of the pupils.

 This method is used to achieve the higher-order teaching objectives.

 In this method each pupil determines his own method of study.

Limitations of Branching Programming

The limitations of branching programming

 The multiple choice questions provided in this programme may encourage

guessing without understanding the subject matter of the frame.

 The setting of appropriate multiple choice questions suiting to the whole material of the frames proves to be a difficult task.

 The branching programme assists to cater to the needs and individual differences of all the learners. It requires infinite branching which is not feasible.

 The branching programme is a costly affair. The cost of preparation of a

programme in a printed book form or audio-visual material is quite high as the programme needs frequent revision.

(iii) Mathetics Programming

Mathetics programming was developed by Thomas F. Gilbert. The term is derived

from the Greek word ‘Mathein’ which means learning.

Linear programming is associated with the change in behaviour, branching

programming with providing remedy, and mathetics with gaining mastery of the

subject. Mathetics programming is also known as backward chaining or retrogressive chaining.

A mathetics programme begins with an instructional plan and an analysis of

what is to be taught. Gilbert emphasizes that the analysis must concentrate on learner

activity and not subject matter coverage. However, mathetical programming may

be applied to any subject. The emphasis on task simulation makes it a particularly

suitable vehicle for teaching skills where transfer of training forms an essential part of instruction.

One of the basic concepts of mathetics is to start with the most motivating

task which generally, is the last or final step in any task. Hence, the learner starts

from the last task and goes backward to finally reach the introductory part. The

tasks or frames have to be carefully chained otherwise they will lose relevance,sequence and logic.

Characteristics of Mathetics Programming

The characteristics of mathetics programming are:

 By this strategy of instructions, opportunities can be provided to the students to learn from their responses.

 It is convenient to make the students understand by presenting the subject matter to them in small steps or units.

 By this strategy, even in the absence of a teacher, the pupils can gain mastery on the subject matter.

 In this, the pupils get reinforcement by confirming their responses. Hence,

completion of the task is considered as a source of reinforcement.

 By this method, chain, dissemination and generalization are used in learning.

 In this strategy, importance is given to the mastery on subject matter.

 In this programming, mastery on subject matter is encouraged by using retrogressive chaining sequence.

Limitations of Mathetics Programming

The limitations of mathetics programming are:

 All types of subject matters cannot be presented. Hence, its application is very limited.

The process of preparing this programme is difficult.

 All the students are required to study under one sequence or programme by ignoring the needs of the pupils.

 It is impossible to achieve higher objectives by applying this method.

 There is no provision of remedial teaching for the pupils in this method.

Programmed instruction is a self-instructional material developed on the

psychological principles of teaching-learning process. A rapid learner can cover the

material quickly and a slow learner may proceed on his own pace. This frees the

learners from the same type of teaching materials delivered to the whole class at the

same pace. The programmed learning material helps the learner to teach himself at

any place and pace according to his convenience. Different types of programmes

have their special advantages and facilitate learner’s initiative participation and involvement according to their interests and ability. They provide scientific teaching and learning for efficient and effective acquisition of knowledge and skills. The analytical thinking and self-direction of learners are also promoted through the use of programmed learning materials.

SUMMARY

 Teaching is not a single activity. It can be interpreted in its molecular form. It

can be viewed as a family of activities. In this family of activities, every activity becomes important.

 Teaching and training are not alike. Training is a part of teaching. The more

the intelligence exhibited in the training programme, more it would be closer

to the teaching-process and would resemble teaching.

 Whenever we happen to provide instruction or guidance, it means we are

performing the task of teaching. But when we teach, it is not necessary that instruction too is included in that teaching.

 Indoctrination is the highest level of teaching. At this level more intelligence is expected. All the great men, politicians, leaders influence other people with the support of their ideology, thoughts, assumptions and beliefs.

 A teacher can present the content at three levels, from thoughtless to thoughtful situations. These levels are: (i) Memory level (ii) Understanding level and (iii) Reflective level.

Memory is a mental process which occurs essentially in some quantity in

every living being. When a person sees an object, a thing or a place, then the

engrams of the object, the thing or the place are formed in his mind. To

memorize these engrams or pre-learnt things is called memory.

 The learnt matter when brought to conscious mind is called recall. Recalling

of past experiences is responsible for a person’s good or bad memory.

 The memory level teaching is thoughtless. In this level of teaching, emphasis

is laid on the presentation of facts and information.

 Herbart has divided the memory level-teaching into five steps which are known as Herbart’s Five Formal Steps. By following these five steps a teacher can create learning situations for memory level teaching.

 In understanding-level teaching, the teacher tries to provide more and more opportunities to develop the intellectual behaviours of the pupils. This develops

the essential competencies for generalizations, insight and solving the problems.

 The model of understanding level teaching was indoctrinated by Morrison.

Hence it is named as Morrison’s Teaching Model.

 Reflective level of teaching includes both understanding and memory-level

teaching. Reflective level of teaching does not succeed if the teaching of memory and understanding levels have not taken place earlier.

 The credit goes to Hunt for developing reflective level of teaching. Therefore,this teaching model is named as Hunt’s Model of Teaching.

 Programmed learning/instruction is a revolutionary strategy pertaining to the art and science of the teaching-learning process.

 Modern programmed instruction originated from the psychology of learning and not from technology. It is an application of the Conditioning theory to teaching learning process.

 Linear programming was developed by B. F. Skinner and is considered one

of the most important types of programmed learning. Its basis is psychology.

Linear programming is also known as Extrinsic Programming.

 Linear programming is a programme designed in a straight line in which the pupil starts from his initial behaviour to the terminal behaviour following a straight line.

 Branching programming is also known as the Crowderian programming. It can be defined as: ‘A programme which adapts to the needs of the students

without the medium of extrinsic device as a computer. It is also known as intrinsic programming as the learner himself makes the decision to adapt the instructions to his/her needs.’

 Mathetics programming is developed by Thomas F. Gilbert. The term is derived from the Greek word ‘Mathein’ which means learning.

KEY TERMS

 Teaching: Teaching may be defined as a system of actions directed to pupils.

 Retention: The process of making the contents permanent in the minds is called retention.

 Recognition: If we see an object or a person and can remember that we have seen the person or the object, it is termed as recognition.

 Permanent memory: The recalling of learnt material for a longer time is known as permanent memory.

 Personal memory: While recalling past experiences, we remember our personal past experiences. This memory is called personal memory.

 Impersonal memory: The recalling of the material learnt from the books and companions is called impersonal memory.

 Rote memory: Rote memory is the kind of memory in which the facts are crammed without any understanding.

 Logical memory: To learn something by using intellect and its recalling when needed is called logical memory.

 Programmed instruction: Programmed instruction can be defined as a teaching method where individualized instructions are provided to students.

In this method, the students are provided with immediate result. The physical presence of teacher is not essential in this strategy.

 Branching programming: Branching programming is, ‘A programme which adapts to the needs of the students without the medium of extrinsic device as a computer. It is also known as intrinsic programming as the learner himself makes the decision to adapt the instructions to his/her needs.’

ALSO READ: stage level and models of teaching. Educational technology.

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